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Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: The Early 20th Century (1890-1945)
7.1 Context: America in the World
7.2 Imperialism: Debates
7.3 The Spanish-American War
7.4 The Progressives
7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy
7.6 World War I: Home Front
7.7 1920s: Innovations
7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies
7.9 The Great Depression
7.10 The New Deal
7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy
7.12 World War II: Mobilization
7.13 World War II: Military
7.14 Postwar Diplomacy
7.15 Comparison in Period 7

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7.13 World War II: Military

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Pre-War Japanese Aggression

US relations with Japan were becoming increasingly strained due to Japan’s invasion of China and its ambitions to extend conquests into Southeast Asia.

When Japan joined the Axis, FDR responded by prohibiting the export of steel and scrap iron to all countries except Britain and the nations of the Western Hemisphere. After Japan invaded French Indochina, FDR froze all Japanese credits in the US and cut off access to vital materials, including US oil.

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Attack on Pearl Harbor. Getty Images

Naval intelligence experts had broken the Japanese diplomatic code and were intercepting and reading all messages between Tokyo and the Japanese embassy in Washington. To mask war preparations, Japan sent another envoy to Washington with new peace proposals. Code breaking allowed American diplomats to know that Japanese terms were unacceptable even before they were formally presented.

Attack on Pearl Harbor

Diplomatic negotiations between the United States and Japan broke down in late 1941, leading to a critical moment in American history. When officials in Washington realized conflict was imminent, they sent warning messages to American bases in the Pacific, but tragically these warnings failed to arrive in time.

On December 7, 1941, at 7:55 AM Hawaii time (just before 1 PM in Washington):

  • Japanese carrier-based aircraft launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Navy base at Pearl Harbor
  • In little more than an hour, the attack devastated the American Pacific fleet
  • 20 American warships were damaged or sunk, including all eight battleships present
  • More than 2,400 American service members and civilians were killed
  • An additional 1,200 were wounded

The following day, President Roosevelt addressed Congress, calling December 7th "a date which will live in infamy," and requested a declaration of war against Japan. Congress approved with only one dissenting vote. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, bringing America fully into World War II on both fronts.

As the war progressed, Americans became increasingly aware of Japanese war atrocities, including the Rape of Nanking in China, where tens of thousands of civilians were massacred. These revelations strengthened American resolve and contributed to the framing of the war as a fight against barbarism and tyranny.

The Holocaust and American Response

Among the most horrific discoveries of the war was the systematic genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany. The Holocaust (also known as the Shoah) was the state-sponsored murder of six million Jewish people and millions of others deemed "undesirable" by the Nazi regime, including Roma people, people with disabilities, LGBTQ individuals, political opponents, and others.

The American government's response to the Holocaust was complex and, in many ways, inadequate:

  • Early reports of Nazi atrocities reached the United States by 1942, but the full scale of the genocide was difficult for many Americans to comprehend
  • Prevailing anti-Semitism and strict immigration quotas established in the 1920s limited the number of Jewish refugees allowed into the United States
  • The War Refugee Board, established by Roosevelt in 1944, helped rescue thousands of Jews but came late in the war
  • Military leaders prioritized winning the war quickly over specific humanitarian interventions, arguing that defeating Germany was the fastest way to end the genocide

American soldiers were among the first Allied troops to liberate Nazi concentration camps in 1945. Their eyewitness accounts and photographs provided irrefutable evidence of Nazi atrocities. The liberation of camps like Buchenwald and Dachau profoundly affected American soldiers and the public, strengthening the moral case for the war and influencing American support for the creation of the United Nations and the State of Israel.

The failure to do more to rescue European Jews remains a painful chapter in American history. The Holocaust demonstrated the devastating consequences of hatred and indifference, and its legacy continues to inform discussions about America's moral responsibilities in the face of genocide and human rights abuses around the world.

The European Theater

The US and Britain achieved a complete wartime partnership. The cooperation between Roosevelt and Churchill ensured a common strategy. They decided from the outset that Germany posed a greater danger and thus gave priority to the European theater.

The US favored an invasion across the English Channel. Army planners led by Chief of Staff George C. Marshall and his protégé, Dwight D. Eisenhower, were convinced that this would be the quickest way to win the war. The British, remembering trench warfare and hoping to protect India, their most important colony, preferred a perimeter approach with air and naval attacks around the continent. As a result, they began by taking back Africa and then moved into Europe via Italy.

General George Patton quickly rallied the troops, and by May of 1943, the Germans were driven from Africa.

The long-awaited second front finally came on June 6, 1944. For two years, the US and Britain had focused on building an invasion force of nearly 3 million troops and a vast armada of ships and landing craft to carry them across the English Channel. Eisenhower hoped to catch Hitler by surprise and chose the Normandy peninsula, where an absence of good harbors led to lighter German fortifications.

D-Day was originally set for June 5, but bad weather forced a delay. On June 6, the invasion began.

  • The night before, three divisions parachuted behind the German defenses
  • At dawn, British and American troops fought their way ashore
  • By the end of the day, Eisenhower had secured his beachhead

American tanks raced across the countryside and liberated Paris by the end of August.

The end came quickly as a massive Russian offensive swept toward Berlin, while American and British forces advanced from the west.

The Allied air force began firebombing German cities such as Hamburg and Dresden, as well as Tokyo in Japan. This was done with high-explosive, incendiary, phosphorous, and napalm bombs. The resulting firestorm was so powerful that buildings erupted in flames over 20 feet high. With hurricane-force, 150-mile-per-hour winds were sucked into the oxygen vacuum created by the fire, ripping trees out by their roots, collapsing buildings, and pulling children from their mothers' arms.

Twenty square miles of the city center burned in an inferno that raged for nine full days. The temperature in the firestorm reached 1,400 degrees Fahrenheit. There was no oxygen to breathe; anything flammable burst spontaneously into flame.

By April, the armies had surrounded Berlin. Hitler refused to call for retreat or surrender. He ordered all males, from toddlers to elderly men, to fight or be shot on the spot. Hitler committed suicide on April 30. A week later, on May 7, Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of German forces.

The Pacific Theater

The war in the Pacific was dominated by naval forces battling over vast areas. After taking back Midway, the US conducted amphibious “island-hopping” campaigns—retaking one island after another to move closer to Japan—rather than attempting to reconquer the Dutch East Indies, Southeast Asia, and China.

In early 1942, the Japanese conquered the Philippines. The American-Filipino forces on the main island fell back toward the Bataan Peninsula, were besieged, and ultimately surrendered in May 1942. When General Douglas MacArthur, commander of army units in the South Pacific, was driven from the islands, he famously vowed, “I shall return.” Japanese atrocities began at the very beginning of the occupation. The captured Americans and Filipinos were marched from Bataan with little food, water, or rest. Coupled with rampant violence, between 7,000 and 10,000 died on what became known as the Bataan Death March.

Kamikaze (Japanese suicide planes) inflicted major damage in the colossal Battle of Okinawa. Before succeeding in taking this island near Japan, US forces suffered 50,000 casualties.

Atomic Bomb

The defeat of Japan was now only a matter of time. The US had three possible ways to proceed. The decision now fell to Harry S. Truman, as FDR had died just months into his unprecedented fourth term:

  • The military favored a full-scale invasion, though casualties would have likely reached into the hundreds of thousands
  • Diplomats suggested a negotiated peace, urging the US to modify its unconditional surrender terms to allow Japan to retain its emperor
  • The third option involved using the highly secret Manhattan Project

Since 1939, the US had spent $2 billion developing an atomic bomb based on the fission of radioactive uranium and plutonium. Scientists—many of them refugees from Europe—worked to perfect this deadly new weapon at the University of Chicago, Oak Ridge (TN), and Los Alamos (NM).

In the New Mexico desert at the Trinity Site on July 16, 1945, they successfully tested the first atomic bomb, creating a fireball brighter than several suns and a mushroom cloud that rose some 40,000 feet. The desert sand turned to glass.

Truman decided to use this new atomic bomb, viewing it as a way to save hundreds of thousands of American lives.

Weather on the morning of August 6 dictated the choice of Hiroshima as the bomb’s target. Other sites were considered, but much of Japan had already been destroyed by conventional bombing. Hiroshima was an industrial city. The explosion incinerated four square miles and instantly killed 60,000 people. Truman called on Japan to unconditionally surrender or face “utter destruction.”

Two days later, with no response, the US dropped a second bomb on Nagasaki. What the Japanese didn’t know was that this was the last atomic bomb the US had.

Three weeks later, aboard the battleship Missouri with General MacArthur, the Japanese surrendered.

Wartime Conferences

During the war, the Big Three (leaders of the US, Soviet Union, and Great Britain) arranged to confer secretly to coordinate their military strategies and lay the foundation for peace terms and postwar involvement.

Casablanca

In January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed on the grand strategy to win the war, including the invasion of Sicily and Italy, and the demand for “unconditional surrender” from the Axis powers.

Tehran

The first wartime Big Three conference brought together Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill in Tehran, Iran, in 1943. They agreed that Britain and America would begin their drive to liberate France, while the Soviets would invade Germany and eventually join the war against Japan.

Yalta

The Big Three met again in February 1945 at the Yalta Conference. Their agreement would prove the most historic of the three meetings. After victory in Europe, they agreed that:

  • Germany would be divided into occupation zones
  • There would be free elections in the liberated countries of Eastern Europe (even though Soviet troops controlled the territory)
  • The Soviets would enter the war against Japan, which they did just as Japan surrendered
  • A new world peace organization (the future United Nations) would be formed at a conference in San Francisco

Potsdam

In late July, after Germany’s surrender, only Stalin remained from the original Big Three. Truman was now US president, and Clement Attlee had replaced Churchill as British prime minister. The three leaders met in Potsdam and agreed:

  • To demand Japan’s unconditional surrender
  • To hold war-crime trials of Nazi leaders

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Key Terms to Review (51)

Allied Air Force: The Allied Air Force was a coalition of air units from multiple nations, primarily the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, that worked together during World War II to achieve air superiority and support ground operations. This coordinated effort was crucial in strategic bombing campaigns, providing vital support for troops on the ground, and ultimately contributing to the defeat of Axis powers.
Atomic Bomb: The atomic bomb is a powerful weapon that uses nuclear reactions to release massive amounts of energy, resulting in devastating explosions. This technology was developed during World War II, marking a significant shift in warfare and international relations. The use of atomic bombs by the United States on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 ultimately led to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II.
Axis: The Axis refers to the coalition of countries led primarily by Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II, which opposed the Allied Powers. This alliance sought to expand their territories and influence through military conquest, resulting in a significant global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945. The Axis powers were characterized by their authoritarian regimes and aggressive expansionist policies.
Bataan Peninsula: The Bataan Peninsula is a region in the Philippines that was the site of significant military action during World War II, particularly known for the Bataan Death March. It became a symbol of Filipino and American resistance against Japanese forces following the invasion of the Philippines in 1941.
Bataan Death March: The Bataan Death March was a forced transfer of Filipino and American prisoners of war by the Imperial Japanese Army during World War II in April 1942. It involved a grueling march of approximately 65 miles under harsh conditions, resulting in the deaths of thousands of soldiers due to starvation, exhaustion, and brutal treatment. This event highlighted the severe atrocities committed during the war and the extreme hardships faced by those captured in the Pacific Theater.
Berlin: Berlin is the capital city of Germany and played a central role during World War II as a major political and military hub for the Nazi regime. Its significance extended beyond Germany, as it became a focal point for the Allies' strategy to defeat Axis powers, especially during the final years of the war when it was the site of intense fighting and ultimately fell to Soviet forces in May 1945.
Battle of Okinawa: The Battle of Okinawa was a major battle fought between April and June 1945 during World War II, marking one of the largest amphibious assaults in the Pacific theater. This brutal conflict involved the United States and Allied forces aiming to capture the island of Okinawa, which was critical for launching a planned invasion of Japan. The battle is notable for its high casualty rates, fierce fighting, and significant impact on the war's final stages.
Big Three (leaders of the US, Soviet Union and Great Britain): The Big Three refers to the leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union, and Great Britain during World War II. This group included President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Premier Joseph Stalin, and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who played a pivotal role in coordinating the Allied powers' strategy against the Axis forces. Their collaboration was crucial in shaping the outcome of the war and laid the groundwork for post-war international relations.
Casablanca: Casablanca refers to the Allied conference held in January 1943 during World War II, where leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill strategized their next moves in the war. The conference marked a significant moment as it emphasized the Allies' commitment to defeating the Axis powers and set the stage for future military operations, particularly the invasion of Italy and the prioritization of defeating Germany first.
Churchill: Winston Churchill was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II, known for his leadership and oratory skills that inspired the British people during a time of crisis. His determination to resist Nazi Germany and rally support from allies, especially the United States, played a pivotal role in shaping the Allied war strategy and boosting morale among troops and citizens alike.
Clement Attlee: Clement Attlee was a British politician who served as Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951, leading the Labour Party to victory in the post-World War II general election. His government implemented significant social reforms and nationalization policies that reshaped Britain’s welfare state, making him a pivotal figure in the establishment of modern British society following the devastation of the war.
Congress: Congress is the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of two chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. It is responsible for making laws, overseeing the federal budget, and representing the interests of citizens at the national level.
D-Day: D-Day refers to June 6, 1944, the day when Allied forces launched a massive invasion of German-occupied France during World War II, marking a significant turning point in the conflict. This operation, known as Operation Overlord, involved an extensive and meticulously planned assault on the beaches of Normandy and represented the largest amphibious invasion in history. D-Day set the stage for the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control.
Dwight D. Eisenhower: Dwight D. Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, serving from 1953 to 1961, and a five-star general in the United States Army during World War II. He played a pivotal role in planning and executing major military operations, including the D-Day invasion of Normandy, which was crucial to the Allied victory in Europe. His leadership during the war and his presidency shaped U.S. foreign policy and military strategy in the post-war era, particularly in the context of Cold War tensions.
European Theater: The European Theater refers to the major area of conflict in Europe during World War II, encompassing a series of significant battles and campaigns between the Allied and Axis powers from 1939 to 1945. This theater included pivotal events such as the Battle of Britain, the Eastern Front, and the D-Day invasion, marking crucial turning points in the war and leading to the eventual defeat of Nazi Germany.
General George Patton: General George Patton was a prominent American general during World War II, known for his bold and aggressive tactics in leading armored forces. He played a vital role in various key campaigns, such as the North African Campaign, the invasion of Italy, and the liberation of Western Europe. Patton's leadership style and strong personality made him a controversial yet effective military leader, helping to shape the course of the war.
George C. Marshall: George C. Marshall was a prominent American military leader and statesman who served as the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army during World War II and later became the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense. He is best known for his role in planning military operations during the war and for the Marshall Plan, which was instrumental in the recovery of European nations after the war, showcasing his influence in both military and diplomatic realms.
Hamburg and Dresden: Hamburg and Dresden are two German cities that were significantly impacted during World War II, particularly through strategic bombing campaigns. Hamburg, a major port city, experienced one of the most devastating air raids in history, while Dresden, known for its cultural heritage, was heavily bombed in February 1945, leading to immense destruction and loss of life. These events exemplify the broader strategy of total war used by the Allies, which aimed to destroy not just military targets but also the industrial and civilian infrastructure of Germany.
Harry S. Truman: Harry S. Truman was the 33rd President of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953, and is best known for his leadership during the final stages of World War II and the beginnings of the Cold War. He made critical decisions such as the use of atomic bombs on Japan, which led to Japan's surrender, and his support for civil rights initiatives that laid groundwork for future reforms. His presidency marked a significant transition in American politics and foreign policy as the nation grappled with post-war challenges and civil rights issues.
Hiroshima: Hiroshima is a city in Japan that became infamous as the first target of an atomic bomb during World War II on August 6, 1945. The bombing, carried out by the United States, marked a pivotal moment in the war, leading to Japan's surrender and fundamentally altering the nature of warfare and international relations.
Hitler: Adolf Hitler was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) and served as Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. His aggressive foreign policies and totalitarian regime led to the outbreak of World War II and were instrumental in the implementation of the Holocaust, resulting in the deaths of millions. Hitler's actions during the interwar period and World War II dramatically reshaped global politics and set the stage for a significant international conflict.
Holocaust: The Holocaust refers to the systematic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators during World War II. This genocide also targeted other groups such as Romani people, disabled individuals, Poles, Soviet POWs, communists, homosexuals, and others deemed 'undesirable.' The Holocaust profoundly impacted postwar diplomacy as nations grappled with the implications of such atrocities, leading to significant discussions around human rights, war crimes, and the establishment of Israel.
Immigration Policies: Immigration policies are the laws and regulations that govern how individuals from other countries can enter, live, and work in a nation. These policies can greatly impact the demographic, economic, and cultural landscape of a country and often reflect broader societal attitudes towards immigration at different historical periods.
Isolationist Sentiment: Isolationist sentiment refers to the political stance and public opinion favoring the avoidance of international involvement and foreign entanglements, particularly in military conflicts. This attitude was notably prevalent in the United States during the interwar period and into World War II, as many Americans believed that the nation should focus on domestic issues rather than engaging in overseas wars and alliances. Isolationist sentiment shaped U.S. foreign policy and public discourse, reflecting deep-rooted fears and skepticism about the consequences of international engagement.
Kamikaze: Kamikaze refers to the Japanese suicide pilots who conducted aerial attacks during World War II, particularly in the latter stages of the conflict. The term translates to 'divine wind' and symbolizes the fierce determination of these pilots to crash their planes, often laden with explosives, into enemy ships, significantly impacting naval battles in the Pacific theater. This tactic demonstrated not only the desperation of Japan as the war turned against them but also a cultural reverence for sacrifice and honor.
Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos, New Mexico, is a town that played a pivotal role during World War II as the site of the Manhattan Project, where scientists developed the first atomic bombs. Established in 1943, this secretive laboratory brought together some of the brightest minds in physics and engineering to work on the bomb that would ultimately change the course of the war and global politics.
Manhattan Project: The Manhattan Project was a secret U.S. government research initiative during World War II aimed at developing atomic bombs. This ambitious project involved collaboration among scientists, engineers, and military personnel, culminating in the first successful detonation of a nuclear weapon in 1945. The project not only marked a significant technological breakthrough but also played a crucial role in the conclusion of the war and the onset of the nuclear age.
Midway: Midway refers to the Battle of Midway, a pivotal naval battle that took place in June 1942 during World War II between the United States and Japan. This battle marked a turning point in the Pacific Theater, as American forces successfully thwarted a Japanese attempt to capture Midway Atoll, leading to significant losses for the Japanese navy and shifting the balance of power in favor of the Allies.
Missouri with General MacArthur: Missouri with General MacArthur refers to the significant role of General Douglas MacArthur during World War II, particularly in the Pacific theater and his leadership in the liberation of the Philippines. His strategic military decisions, including the famous return to the Philippines, underscored the importance of Missouri as a rallying point and symbol for American forces and their efforts to reclaim territory from Japanese control.
Nagasaki: Nagasaki is a city in Japan that was the site of the second atomic bombing on August 9, 1945, during World War II. This bombing, following the attack on Hiroshima just three days earlier, played a critical role in leading to Japan's surrender and the end of the war. The impact of the Nagasaki bombing not only affected the immediate aftermath of World War II but also influenced international relations and military strategies in the subsequent years.
Nanjing, China: Nanjing is a city in eastern China that served as the capital of the Republic of China during the Second Sino-Japanese War. It is most notably known for the Nanjing Massacre, a horrific event during World War II when Japanese troops captured the city and committed widespread atrocities against civilians and disarmed soldiers.
Nazi concentration camps: Nazi concentration camps were facilities established by the German government during World War II to detain, exploit, and exterminate millions of people deemed undesirable, particularly Jews, political dissidents, Roma, and others. These camps served as instruments of the Holocaust, where systematic killings, forced labor, and inhumane living conditions were rampant, highlighting the brutal nature of Nazi ideology and policies during the war.
Normandy Peninsula: The Normandy Peninsula is a region in northern France that is known for its historical significance, particularly during World War II. This area became the focal point of the D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, when Allied forces launched a massive invasion to liberate Western Europe from Nazi occupation. Its strategic location along the English Channel made it a key site for military operations and a symbol of Allied resolve.
Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, is a city that played a crucial role during World War II as the site of the Manhattan Project, which developed the atomic bomb. This secret city was established in 1942 to house workers and scientists involved in nuclear research and enrichment processes, making it pivotal in the U.S. efforts to win the war and ultimately change the course of history.
Pacific Theater: The Pacific Theater refers to the major area of conflict in the Pacific Ocean region during World War II, primarily involving the Allies against Japan. This theater was characterized by intense naval battles, island-hopping campaigns, and significant ground operations across various islands, as the United States and its allies sought to reclaim territory taken by Japan and ultimately defeat its forces.
Paris: Paris is the capital city of France and a significant location during World War II, especially known for its strategic importance and its liberation from Nazi occupation in 1944. The city served as a cultural and political center, influencing both French and global history. Its liberation marked a symbolic victory for the Allies and represented hope for freedom across Europe.
Pearl Harbor: Pearl Harbor is a U.S. naval base located on the island of Oahu in Hawaii, famously attacked by the Japanese on December 7, 1941. This surprise military strike led to the United States' entry into World War II, marking a pivotal moment in both American history and the global conflict.
Philippines: The Philippines is an archipelago in Southeast Asia composed of over 7,000 islands. The islands became a significant focus of American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly after the Spanish-American War, leading to American control and significant military engagement during World War II.
Potsdam: Potsdam refers to the conference held in July-August 1945, where the Allied leaders met to discuss the post-war order in Europe and the administration of Germany after World War II. This meeting was significant as it established protocols for managing defeated Germany, addressed territorial changes, and set the stage for the Cold War tensions that would arise between the United States and the Soviet Union.
Pre-War Japanese Aggression: Pre-War Japanese Aggression refers to the series of militaristic and expansionist policies and actions taken by Japan in the 1930s, leading up to its involvement in World War II. This period is marked by Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and its subsequent military campaigns in China, which demonstrated a clear intent to establish dominance in East Asia. These aggressive actions not only contributed to regional instability but also set the stage for Japan's broader ambitions that ultimately led to conflicts with Western powers.
Roma People: The Roma People, also known as Romani, are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group with roots tracing back to northern India. They are known for their distinct culture, language, and traditions, but have historically faced discrimination and persecution, particularly during events like World War II when they were targeted in the Holocaust.
Roosevelt: Roosevelt refers to Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR), the 32nd President of the United States, who served from 1933 to 1945. He played a crucial role during World War II, leading the nation through the Great Depression and establishing policies that would shape both domestic and foreign affairs. His leadership during the war not only transformed the United States into a global superpower but also influenced post-war international relations and the establishment of organizations aimed at promoting peace and security.
Shoah: Shoah is the Hebrew term for the Holocaust, referring to the systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others by Nazi Germany during World War II. This term emphasizes the catastrophic nature of this event, which was characterized by mass extermination, concentration camps, and widespread atrocities against not only Jewish people but also Romani people, disabled individuals, Poles, Soviet prisoners of war, and various other groups deemed undesirable by the Nazis.
Tehran: Tehran is the capital city of Iran and was the site of the Tehran Conference in 1943 during World War II. This important meeting brought together the leaders of the Allied powers to discuss military strategy and post-war plans, marking a significant moment in international relations as the Allies coordinated their efforts against the Axis powers.
Tokyo in Japan: Tokyo is the capital city of Japan and one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. It plays a crucial role in Japan's history, especially during World War II when it was a significant military and political center for the Japanese government and a target for Allied forces during the war.
Trinity Site: Trinity Site is the location in New Mexico where the first atomic bomb was detonated on July 16, 1945, marking a pivotal moment in World War II and the dawn of the atomic age. The successful test of the bomb, known as 'Trinity,' led to significant military and political decisions, including the use of atomic weapons against Japan, which played a crucial role in ending the war and shaping post-war global dynamics.
University of Chicago: The University of Chicago is a prestigious private research university founded in 1890, known for its rigorous academic programs and notable contributions to various fields, including economics and social sciences. It played a significant role in shaping modern thought during the 20th century, especially in relation to World War II and the early civil rights movement, influencing both policy and academic discourse.
Uranium and Plutonium: Uranium and plutonium are radioactive elements that serve as critical fuels in nuclear reactors and are the primary materials used in atomic bombs. Uranium is naturally occurring, primarily found in minerals like uraninite, while plutonium is synthetically produced through nuclear reactions involving uranium. Their ability to undergo fission—the process of splitting atomic nuclei—makes them powerful energy sources and essential components in the development of nuclear weapons during the mid-20th century.
War-crime trials of Nazi leaders: The war-crime trials of Nazi leaders were a series of military tribunals held after World War II to prosecute prominent leaders of Nazi Germany for crimes against humanity, war crimes, and genocide. These trials were pivotal in establishing accountability for the atrocities committed during the Holocaust and shaped international law regarding human rights and war crimes.
Wartime Conferences: Wartime conferences were a series of high-level meetings among Allied leaders during World War II, aimed at coordinating military strategies and planning for post-war reconstruction. These conferences facilitated collaboration between key leaders such as Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin, and helped shape the geopolitical landscape after the war ended.
Yalta Conference: The Yalta Conference was a pivotal meeting held in February 1945 between the leaders of the Allied powers—Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin—during World War II. This conference aimed to shape the post-war landscape of Europe by discussing the reorganization of Germany and the fate of Eastern European countries, marking a crucial turning point in international relations.
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7.14 Postwar Diplomacy