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Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: The Early 20th Century (1890-1945)
7.1 Context: America in the World
7.2 Imperialism: Debates
7.3 The Spanish-American War
7.4 The Progressives
7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy
7.6 World War I: Home Front
7.7 1920s: Innovations
7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies
7.9 The Great Depression
7.10 The New Deal
7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy
7.12 World War II: Mobilization
7.13 World War II: Military
7.14 Postwar Diplomacy
7.15 Comparison in Period 7

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7.3 The Spanish-American War

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The Spanish-American War marked a pivotal moment in American history, transforming the United States from a continental power to an empire with overseas territories. Though brief—lasting only a few months in 1898—this conflict redefined America's role on the world stage and established the nation as an emerging global power with new territorial possessions in both the Caribbean and Pacific.

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Theodore Roosevelt and the "Rough Riders" during the Spanish-American War. Image courtesy of Britannica.

The Cuban Revolt Against Spain

By the 1890s, Cuba had been fighting for independence from Spanish colonial rule. The island's proximity to Florida (just 90 miles away) and its valuable sugar plantations made it of particular interest to American businesses and politicians.

In 1895, Cuban rebels launched a revolution against Spanish rule, employing guerrilla tactics and a scorched earth policy to damage plantations and infrastructure. Their strategy was designed to either force Spain to withdraw or provoke American intervention on their behalf.

Spain responded by sending General Valeriano Weyler to crush the rebellion. Nicknamed "The Butcher," Weyler implemented a brutal reconcentration policy that forced Cuban civilians into military-controlled camps. Conditions in these camps were appalling, with thousands dying from disease, starvation, and unsanitary conditions. These humanitarian abuses would soon catch American attention.

Yellow Journalism Inflames American Opinion

While tensions grew in Cuba, American newspapers competed for readers through sensationalist reporting that became known as yellow journalism. Two newspaper titans—William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal and Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World—dramatically inflamed public opinion with emotional, often exaggerated stories of Spanish atrocities.

These papers published graphic illustrations of Spanish cruelty and wrote sympathetic accounts of Cuban suffering. The yellow press effectively stirred American emotions and built public pressure for intervention, with some newspapers openly advocating for war.

Catalysts for War

Several key incidents pushed America toward declaring war:

The De Lome Letter

In February 1898, the New York Journal published a private letter written by Spanish Ambassador Enrique Dupuy de Lome. In the letter, de Lome described President McKinley as "weak" and "a would-be politician." The publication of this diplomatic indiscretion outraged Americans and embarrassed Spain, leading to de Lome's resignation but further damaging Spanish-American relations.

The USS Maine Explosion

To protect American citizens and interests in Cuba, President McKinley sent the battleship USS Maine to Havana harbor in January 1898. On February 15, the ship mysteriously exploded, killing 266 American sailors. Without waiting for an investigation, American newspapers immediately blamed Spain with headlines screaming "Remember the Maine, To Hell with Spain!"

Although later investigations suggested the explosion was likely caused by an internal coal bunker fire rather than Spanish sabotage, the incident became a rallying cry for war. The yellow press had successfully pushed American public opinion toward intervention.

Declaration of War

Despite Spain's agreement to most American demands, including a ceasefire in Cuba, the momentum for war had become unstoppable. On April 20, 1898, Congress passed a joint resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal from Cuba and authorizing military intervention.

This resolution included the important Teller Amendment, which declared that the United States had no intention of exercising sovereignty over Cuba—the island would be free and independent once peace was restored. Four days later, on April 25, Congress officially declared war on Spain.

A "Splendid Little War"

The Spanish-American War lasted just 114 days. American forces quickly defeated Spanish troops in both the Caribbean and Pacific theaters:

The Philippine Campaign

Commodore George Dewey led the Asiatic Squadron to a decisive victory at Manila Bay on May 1, destroying the entire Spanish fleet without losing a single American ship. American troops later captured Manila with assistance from Filipino nationalists led by Emilio Aguinaldo, who had been fighting for independence from Spain.

The Caribbean Campaign

In Cuba, American forces including Theodore Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry regiment (the "Rough Riders") won victories at San Juan Hill and El Caney. The American navy destroyed Spain's Caribbean fleet when it attempted to escape Santiago harbor.

By August 1898, Spain had no choice but to sign an armistice, ending what Secretary of State John Hay called "a splendid little war."

Treaty of Paris and Imperial Acquisitions

The war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898. The terms dramatically expanded American territorial holdings:

  • Cuba gained independence (though under significant American influence)
  • The United States annexed Puerto Rico and Guam
  • The Philippines were ceded to the United States for $20 million

Additionally, while not technically part of the Spanish-American War, the United States also annexed Hawaii in 1898, further extending American power into the Pacific.

Consequences of the War

The Spanish-American War had far-reaching consequences for American foreign policy and global standing:

The Philippine-American War

Perhaps the most troubling aftermath was the Philippine-American War (1899-1902). Filipino nationalists who had expected independence felt betrayed when the United States decided to colonize their islands. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, they launched a guerrilla campaign against American occupation.

The ensuing conflict was much longer and bloodier than the Spanish-American War, with atrocities committed on both sides. Approximately 4,200 American soldiers, 20,000 Filipino combatants, and as many as 200,000 Filipino civilians died before resistance was suppressed. This brutal colonial war highlighted the contradictions in American imperialism.

Expanded American Influence in Asia

The acquisition of the Philippines and Guam gave the United States naval bases and coaling stations that enabled greater American involvement in Asian affairs. Soon after, America participated in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899-1901) and advocated for the Open Door Policy to ensure American commercial access to Chinese markets.

New Role in the Caribbean

The war also solidified American dominance in the Caribbean. Through the Platt Amendment of 1901, which modified the Teller Amendment, the United States maintained significant control over Cuban affairs, including the right to intervene in Cuban politics and the establishment of the naval base at Guantanamo Bay.

The Spanish-American War transformed the United States into a colonial power with territories spanning the globe. While brief in duration, this conflict fundamentally altered America's international position and set the stage for the nation's emergence as a world power in the 20th century. The debates over imperialism that began before the war would continue long after, as Americans grappled with their new role on the world stage and the responsibilities that came with empire.

Key Terms to Review (27)

Big Stick Diplomacy: Big Stick Diplomacy is a foreign policy approach characterized by the use of military power as a means to achieve diplomatic goals, famously associated with President Theodore Roosevelt. This strategy emphasizes negotiation backed by the threat of military force, reflecting Roosevelt's belief that a strong military was essential for maintaining a nation's international influence and ensuring peace. The term is closely linked to events like the Spanish-American War and the expansion of American influence on the global stage.
Boxer Rebellion: The Boxer Rebellion was a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China that took place between 1899 and 1901. This movement was fueled by nationalist sentiments and opposition to foreign imperialist influence, particularly from Western nations and Japan. The rebellion's context is closely tied to the aftermath of the Spanish-American War, as it highlighted the broader issues of imperialism and foreign intervention in Asia during this era.
Cuban Revolt: The Cuban Revolt was an insurrection that took place in Cuba from 1895 to 1898, aimed at achieving independence from Spanish colonial rule. This revolt was fueled by nationalistic sentiments and the desire for freedom, leading to widespread violence and destruction. The conflict caught the attention of the United States, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War.
Cuba: Cuba is an island nation located in the Caribbean, known for its rich history, culture, and political significance. It became a focal point during the age of imperialism, especially when it was caught in the conflict between Spain and the United States, leading to the Spanish-American War. The outcomes of this war significantly shifted America's role on the global stage, marking its emergence as a key player in international affairs.
De Lome Letter: The De Lome Letter was a private correspondence written by Spanish Minister to the United States, Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, that criticized President William McKinley and described him as weak. This letter, published in February 1898, fueled anti-Spanish sentiment in the U.S. and was a significant catalyst leading to the Spanish-American War.
Dollar Diplomacy: Dollar Diplomacy refers to the foreign policy strategy employed by the United States, particularly under President William Howard Taft, aimed at furthering American interests abroad by using economic power and financial investment rather than military intervention. This approach sought to promote stability in Latin America and East Asia through economic means, reflecting a shift from direct military action to a focus on economic influence and investment.
Enrique Dupuy de Lome: Enrique Dupuy de Lome was a Spanish diplomat who served as the Spanish ambassador to the United States in the late 19th century. He is most famously known for his role in escalating tensions between the U.S. and Spain leading up to the Spanish-American War, particularly due to a private letter he wrote that criticized President William McKinley, which was intercepted and published by the press.
Filipino-American War: The Filipino-American War was an armed conflict between the First Philippine Republic and the United States from 1899 to 1902, arising after the Spanish-American War and the U.S. acquisition of the Philippines. This war marked a significant moment in American imperialism, as the U.S. sought to establish control over the Philippines following its victory over Spain, leading to a brutal struggle for independence by Filipino forces against American colonization.
Guam: Guam is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean, known for its strategic military importance and rich cultural history. The island became a significant focal point during the Spanish-American War, reflecting America's emerging global presence and interest in overseas territories, and has played a vital role in shaping American identity in the Pacific region.
Hawaii: Hawaii is a volcanic archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean that became the 50th state of the United States in 1959. Its strategic location and rich resources made it a focal point for American imperial ambitions, as well as a key player in international politics and military strategy throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or practice of extending a nation's power and influence through diplomacy or military force, often resulting in the domination of one country over another. It involves the acquisition of territories or the establishment of economic and political control over foreign lands, leading to significant social, cultural, and economic changes. This concept has influenced various historical developments, including economic transformations, international conflicts, and shifts in power dynamics.
Jingoism: Jingoism is an extreme form of patriotism that often advocates for aggressive foreign policy and military action. This intense national pride can lead to a fervent belief in one's country's superiority and a desire to expand its influence or territory, often at the expense of others. In the context of the Spanish-American War, jingoism fueled public support for intervention in Cuba and the Philippines, as many Americans felt it was their duty to spread democracy and civilization, reflecting a mix of nationalism and imperialism.
Joseph Pulitzer's New York World: Joseph Pulitzer's New York World was a prominent newspaper in the late 19th century, known for its sensational journalism and commitment to investigative reporting. It played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing American attitudes during significant events, particularly the Spanish-American War, by highlighting issues like the plight of Cubans under Spanish rule and using bold headlines and illustrations to attract readers.
Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: The Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine was an extension proposed by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge in 1912, asserting that non-European powers, particularly Japan, should not have territorial ambitions in the Americas. This corollary emphasized that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin America to prevent any foreign encroachment that could threaten U.S. interests, connecting it to broader U.S. foreign policy goals during a time of expanding influence in the Western Hemisphere.
Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy statement made by President James Monroe in 1823 that warned European nations against further colonization and intervention in the Americas. This doctrine established the Western Hemisphere as a sphere of American influence and marked a turning point in U.S. foreign relations, emphasizing a commitment to protecting emerging Latin American nations and asserting the United States' growing role on the global stage.
Moral Diplomacy: Moral Diplomacy refers to a foreign policy strategy that emphasizes promoting moral values and ethical standards in international relations, particularly by supporting democratic governments and human rights. It is often associated with President Woodrow Wilson, who aimed to apply ethical considerations in U.S. foreign policy, especially during the events surrounding the Spanish-American War and its aftermath.
Open Door policy in China: The Open Door policy in China was a diplomatic principle introduced by the United States in 1899, aimed at ensuring equal trading rights for all nations and maintaining China's territorial integrity. This policy was a response to the increasing spheres of influence established by foreign powers in China, and it sought to prevent any one nation from monopolizing trade with the Chinese market. By advocating for open access, the U.S. aimed to promote its economic interests while also supporting China's sovereignty amid imperialist pressures.
Puerto Rico: Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the Caribbean, originally acquired from Spain following the Spanish-American War in 1898. Its status has made it a focal point for discussions on colonialism, American identity, and the role of the U.S. in global affairs.
Reconcentration Policy: The Reconcentration Policy was a strategy implemented by Spanish authorities in Cuba during the late 19th century, aiming to control the insurgent population by forcibly relocating rural civilians into designated camps. This policy was an attempt to suppress the Cuban War of Independence, resulting in severe humanitarian crises and significant loss of life due to poor conditions in these camps. The brutal tactics used under this policy helped fuel anti-Spanish sentiment in the United States and contributed to the escalation towards the Spanish-American War.
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine: The Roosevelt Corollary was an extension of the Monroe Doctrine, articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904, asserting that the United States had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and order. This policy was rooted in the belief that instability in the Western Hemisphere could lead to European intervention, which the United States sought to prevent. The Corollary transformed the Monroe Doctrine from a policy of non-intervention into one that justified American intervention in the affairs of neighboring countries.
Spanish-American War: The Spanish-American War was a conflict fought between the United States and Spain in 1898, primarily over issues related to Cuban independence. This war marked a significant turning point for the U.S., as it not only resulted in the liberation of Cuba but also led to the U.S. acquiring territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, effectively marking the emergence of America as a global power.
Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States, serving from 1901 to 1909. He was a driving force behind various progressive reforms and was known for his strong leadership during the Gilded Age, championing policies that addressed social injustices and economic inequalities while expanding America's role on the world stage.
USS Maine: The USS Maine was a United States Navy battleship that sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, under mysterious circumstances. This event played a crucial role in escalating tensions between the United States and Spain, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. The sinking of the USS Maine became a rallying cry for American intervention in Cuba and heightened public support for military action against Spain.
Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau: Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau was a Spanish general and colonial administrator, best known for his role as the Governor-General of Cuba during the Cuban War of Independence from 1895 to 1898. His harsh tactics, including the implementation of reconcentration policies, aimed to suppress Cuban rebels but ultimately intensified anti-Spanish sentiment and contributed to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War.
William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal: William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal was a sensationalist newspaper that played a significant role in shaping public opinion during the late 19th century, particularly around the time of the Spanish-American War. It was known for its bold headlines, exaggerated stories, and focus on scandalous news, which helped fuel public support for U.S. intervention in Cuba and other foreign conflicts. The paper exemplified the rise of yellow journalism, which prioritized sensationalism over factual reporting.
William McKinley: William McKinley was the 25th President of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. His presidency is closely associated with the Spanish-American War and marked a shift in American foreign policy towards imperialism and a more active role on the global stage.
Yellow Journalism: Yellow Journalism refers to a style of sensationalized and exaggerated reporting that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by eye-catching headlines, scandal-mongering, and often misleading information. This type of journalism played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and influencing political actions during key historical moments, especially in the lead-up to conflicts like the Spanish-American War and in the era of Progressive reform.
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7.4 The Progressives