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AP US History
Unit 7 Overview: The Early 20th Century (1890-1945)
7.1 Context: America in the World
7.2 Imperialism: Debates
7.3 The Spanish-American War
7.4 The Progressives
7.5 World War I: Military and Diplomacy
7.6 World War I: Home Front
7.7 1920s: Innovations
7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies
7.9 The Great Depression
7.10 The New Deal
7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy
7.12 World War II: Mobilization
7.13 World War II: Military
7.14 Postwar Diplomacy
7.15 Comparison in Period 7

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7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy

Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024

In the years following World War I, the United States pursued a unilateral foreign policy that balanced traditional isolationism with selective international engagement. As global threats emerged in the 1930s, American policy gradually shifted from strict neutrality to increasing support for democracies facing aggression, culminating in full participation in World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor.

American Isolationism and Engagement

Following World War I, many Americans sought to limit foreign entanglements while still maintaining global influence. President Warren G. Harding promised a "return to normalcy" in foreign affairs, reflecting the nation's desire to focus on domestic prosperity rather than European problems.

The United States pursued a unilateral approach to international relations:

  • Rejected membership in the League of Nations and the World Court
  • Participated in arms limitation efforts while avoiding security alliances
  • Used international investment and trade as primary tools of influence
  • Sought peace through negotiation rather than military commitments

The Washington Naval Conference (1921-1922) exemplified this approach by establishing tonnage ratios for major naval powers (US and UK: 5, Japan: 3, France and Italy: 1.75) to prevent costly arms races. Similarly, the Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) represented America's idealistic attempt to outlaw war, though it lacked enforcement mechanisms.

Economic Diplomacy and Latin America

American foreign policy increasingly relied on economic tools to promote stability and advance national interests. Through the Dawes Plan (1924), American banks made loans to Germany, creating a circular flow where Germany paid reparations to Britain and France, which then repaid war debts to the U.S. This financial interconnection would later contribute to the global spread of the Great Depression.

In Latin America, the United States transformed its approach under the Good Neighbor Policy championed by President Roosevelt:

  • FDR pledged at the 1933 Pan-American Conference never to intervene in Latin American internal affairs
  • The U.S. terminated the Platt Amendment, ending the right to intervene in Cuba
  • Emphasis shifted to reciprocal trade agreements and cultural exchanges
  • This policy built hemispheric solidarity that would prove valuable during World War II

Response to Global Threats

As fascist and militarist regimes gained power in the 1930s, American policy gradually shifted from strict neutrality toward supporting democracies. The rise of Hitler in Germany, Mussolini in Italy, and Japanese militarism in Asia presented new challenges to international stability and American interests.

Most Americans remained opposed to direct intervention despite these growing threats. The Great Depression focused attention on domestic problems, while memories of World War I made many wary of foreign entanglements. President Roosevelt increasingly warned about totalitarian dangers while moving cautiously to avoid getting ahead of public opinion.

Neutrality Legislation and Path to War

Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts designed to prevent American entanglement in foreign wars:

  • The 1935 Act prohibited arms sales to nations at war
  • The 1937 Act created "cash and carry" provisions for trade with belligerents
  • These laws initially limited America's ability to support democracies against aggressors

As World War II began in Europe, Roosevelt sought greater flexibility to help Britain and France. After the fall of France in 1940, American support for Britain accelerated through the Destroyer-for-Bases Deal, the Selective Service Act (establishing the first peacetime draft), and the Lend-Lease Act of 1941, which allowed Britain, and later the Soviet Union and China, to receive American equipment.

In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter outlining principles for a postwar world based on democracy and self-determination. Though not yet at war, the United States had clearly aligned itself with Britain against Nazi Germany.

Rising tensions with Japan culminated in the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, killing over 2,400 Americans. Germany and Italy declared war on the United States days later, bringing America fully into the global conflict and ending the interwar period of American foreign policy.

The interwar years witnessed America's gradual evolution from post-WWI isolationism to world leadership. Throughout this period, American policymakers balanced traditional desires to avoid entanglements with the growing reality that events abroad threatened national security and democratic values.

Key Terms to Review (24)

7th Pan-American Conference: The 7th Pan-American Conference, held in 1933 in Washington, D.C., was a diplomatic meeting aimed at strengthening relations and cooperation among the nations of the Americas. This conference was significant for its focus on collective security, economic cooperation, and the promotion of non-interventionist policies, reflecting the interwar foreign policy attitudes of the time.
America First organization: The America First organization was a political movement that emerged in the late 1930s, advocating for American nationalism and isolationism, particularly in the context of World War II. This group emphasized the need to prioritize American interests and resist foreign entanglements, reflecting the sentiments of many Americans who were hesitant about involvement in international conflicts.
American Bund: The American Bund was a pro-German organization established in the United States during the 1930s, which aimed to promote Nazi ideology and foster support for the German government among Americans. It was a nationalist group that sought to unite German-Americans and promote their interests while endorsing the principles of fascism, ultimately contributing to the broader context of interwar foreign policy as tensions rose between the U.S. and Europe.
American Isolation: American Isolation refers to the foreign policy stance taken by the United States during the interwar period, characterized by a reluctance to engage in European conflicts and a focus on domestic issues. This approach was shaped by the aftermath of World War I, where the U.S. sought to avoid entanglements in international disputes and prioritize its own interests. The belief that America should remain uninvolved in foreign affairs influenced significant legislation and public sentiment during this time.
Cash and Carry program: The Cash and Carry program was a policy established in 1939 that allowed countries at war to purchase goods from the United States as long as they paid in cash and transported the goods themselves. This policy was aimed at helping the Allies during World War II while maintaining a level of neutrality for the United States. By requiring cash payments and self-transportation, the program aimed to reduce risks for American shipping and avoid entanglement in foreign conflicts.
Charles Lindbergh: Charles Lindbergh was an American aviator, author, and activist who gained fame for completing the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight in 1927. His flight from New York to Paris symbolized the potential of aviation and showcased America's technological advancements during a time of rapid change in the 1920s. Lindbergh became a national hero, but his later involvement in political issues, including isolationism before World War II, had lasting effects on interwar foreign policy.
Dawes Plan: The Dawes Plan was a financial arrangement established in 1924 to help Germany recover from World War I by restructuring its reparations payments and stabilizing its economy. It involved loans from the United States to Germany, which would then be used to pay reparations to France and Britain, thereby easing the economic burden on Germany and promoting stability in Europe during the interwar period.
Fritz Julius Kuhn: Fritz Julius Kuhn was a German-American political activist and the leader of the German-American Bund, a pro-Nazi organization active in the United States during the 1930s. He aimed to promote Nazi ideology and American fascism among German-Americans, often organizing rallies that drew attention to his anti-Semitic and nationalist views. His activities occurred during a time when the U.S. was grappling with issues of isolationism and the growing threat of fascism abroad.
Good Neighbor Policy: The Good Neighbor Policy was a diplomatic approach initiated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s, aimed at improving relations between the United States and Latin American countries. This policy marked a shift from previous interventionist practices, promoting mutual respect, non-intervention, and cooperation among nations in the Americas. It significantly influenced U.S. foreign relations during a time of economic crisis and rising tensions leading up to World War II.
Great Depression: The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to the late 1930s, marked by a dramatic decline in industrial production, mass unemployment, and widespread poverty. It reshaped the American economy and society, leading to significant changes in government policies and international relations.
Hitler: Adolf Hitler was the leader of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) and served as Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945. His aggressive foreign policies and totalitarian regime led to the outbreak of World War II and were instrumental in the implementation of the Holocaust, resulting in the deaths of millions. Hitler's actions during the interwar period and World War II dramatically reshaped global politics and set the stage for a significant international conflict.
Interwar Period: The Interwar Period refers to the time between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. This era was marked by significant political, social, and economic changes across the globe, especially in Europe, as nations grappled with the consequences of the war, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the quest for stability.
Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor: The Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. This attack led to the United States' entry into World War II and marked a significant turning point in U.S. foreign policy from isolationism to active engagement in global conflicts.
Kellogg-Briand Pact: The Kellogg-Briand Pact, signed in 1928, was an international agreement that aimed to prevent war by making it illegal for countries to use war as a means of resolving disputes. It reflected the interwar period's desire for peace and stability after the devastation of World War I, promoting diplomacy and dialogue over military conflict.
Lend-Lease Act: The Lend-Lease Act was a program initiated by the United States during World War II that allowed the government to supply military aid to foreign nations deemed vital to the defense of the United States. This act marked a significant shift in American foreign policy from neutrality to active support for Allied nations, reflecting the growing recognition of the threat posed by Axis powers. Through this act, the U.S. provided essential war materials, food, and equipment, which helped bolster the military capabilities of nations fighting against Axis aggression.
Mussolini: Benito Mussolini was an Italian politician and leader of the National Fascist Party, who ruled Italy as Prime Minister from 1922 until his ousting in 1943. He was a key figure in the development of fascism, promoting aggressive nationalism and militarism that shaped Italy's interwar foreign policy and influenced broader European tensions leading up to World War II.
Nazism: Nazism, or National Socialism, is a totalitarian ideology that emerged in Germany during the early 20th century, characterized by extreme nationalism, racism, and the belief in the superiority of the Aryan race. It gained prominence under Adolf Hitler's leadership in the 1930s and led to aggressive expansionist policies that significantly influenced interwar foreign relations and contributed to the outbreak of World War II.
Neutrality Acts: The Neutrality Acts were a series of laws passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s aimed at preventing American involvement in foreign conflicts. These acts reflected a strong isolationist sentiment in the U.S. following the experiences of World War I, seeking to avoid entanglement in another war by restricting arms sales and financial aid to belligerent nations. The Neutrality Acts were significant as they shaped U.S. foreign policy during the interwar period, reflecting the desire to maintain peace and stability at home while other nations faced increasing tensions.
Selective Service Act of 1940: The Selective Service Act of 1940 was a U.S. law that established the first peacetime draft in American history, requiring men aged 21 to 36 to register for military service. This act marked a significant shift in U.S. foreign policy as the nation prepared for potential involvement in World War II, reflecting the growing tensions and conflicts occurring in Europe and Asia during the interwar period.
Stalin: Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, known for his totalitarian regime and rapid industrialization policies. His leadership significantly shaped the Soviet Union's foreign policy during the interwar period, particularly through initiatives like collectivization and promoting communism as a global ideology, which influenced relations with other nations.
Tojo: Hideki Tojo was a Japanese general and politician who served as Prime Minister of Japan during much of World War II. He played a crucial role in shaping Japan's militaristic foreign policy during the interwar period, leading to aggressive expansion in Asia and the Pacific.
Totalitarianism: Totalitarianism is a political system where the state holds absolute power over all aspects of public and private life. This type of regime seeks to control not only the government but also the economy, culture, education, and even the thoughts and beliefs of its citizens, often employing propaganda, censorship, and terror. In the interwar period, totalitarian regimes emerged in various countries as a response to economic instability, social unrest, and the desire for strong leadership.
Warren G. Harding: Warren G. Harding was the 29th President of the United States, serving from 1921 until his death in 1923. His presidency is often associated with a return to normalcy after World War I and a focus on economic growth, though it was also marred by scandals and corruption. Harding's foreign policy aimed to promote stability and peace through diplomacy and treaties, especially in the context of the interwar period.
Washington Conference of 1921: The Washington Conference of 1921 was an international meeting held to address the naval arms race and promote peace and stability in the Pacific region following World War I. It resulted in several treaties, including the Five-Power Treaty, which limited naval construction among the United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy, aiming to prevent future conflicts and maintain a balance of power in the region.
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7.12 World War II: Mobilization