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7.6 World War I: Home Front
Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Citation:MLA
While American soldiers fought abroad during World War I, the United States underwent dramatic social and economic changes at home. The war effort required unprecedented government management of the economy, restricted civil liberties, altered migration patterns, and transformed the role of women and minorities in the workforce. These wartime changes accelerated existing trends in American society and set the stage for the cultural and social tensions that would define the 1920s.
Wartime Restrictions on Civil Liberties
The urgency of war led to government restrictions on free speech and the persecution of those perceived as disloyal. Americans who opposed the war found themselves facing both legal punishment and mob violence.
Anti-German Sentiment
Americans of German descent, the largest immigrant group in the United States at the time, became targets of suspicion and harassment:
- German language instruction was removed from many schools
- German foods were renamed (sauerkraut became "liberty cabbage")
- German music was banned from concert halls
- German books were removed from libraries or even burned
- German-Americans were forced to buy war bonds to prove their loyalty
- Mobs sometimes attacked those with German names or accents
The Espionage and Sedition Acts
The Wilson administration enacted legislation that severely restricted free speech:
- The Espionage Act (1917) made it illegal to interfere with military operations or recruitment
- The Sedition Act (1918) prohibited "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the government, flag, or armed forces
These laws were used to silence critics of the war, including:
- Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party leader, who was sentenced to 10 years in prison for an antiwar speech
- Over 1,500 others who were arrested for criticizing the war effort
- Newspapers and magazines that were censored or shut down for opposing the war
Supreme Court Limitations on Free Speech
In a landmark case, Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the Espionage Act. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes introduced the "clear and present danger" test for limiting free speech, writing that the First Amendment would not protect someone "falsely shouting fire in a theatre and causing a panic."
This decision established that the government could restrict speech that presented a clear danger to national security during wartime, severely limiting Americans' First Amendment protections until later court decisions modified this standard.
Government Management of the Economy
The war required a coordinated national effort to supply both American and Allied forces. President Wilson created several temporary agencies to manage resources, production, and labor relations:
War Industries Board
Headed by financier Bernard Baruch, the War Industries Board became the most powerful of the wartime agencies:
- Set production priorities for factories
- Allocated raw materials to essential industries
- Fixed prices on many goods
- Standardized products to increase efficiency
- Coordinated purchasing among government agencies
Though the board lacked formal enforcement powers, most industries cooperated voluntarily, recognizing that government contracts offered substantial profits.
Food Administration
Led by future president Herbert Hoover, the Food Administration managed the nation's food supply:
- Encouraged voluntary conservation with slogans like "Food will win the war"
- Promoted "Wheatless Mondays" and "Meatless Tuesdays"
- Established gardens in yards and vacant lots ("victory gardens")
- Set price controls on staple foods
- Increased agricultural production through guaranteed prices to farmers
These efforts were remarkably successful—American food exports to Allies tripled during the war without requiring strict rationing at home.
Fuel Administration
This agency managed coal and oil resources:
- Implemented "heatless Mondays" in factories
- Established daylight saving time to conserve electricity
- Regulated fuel distribution to prioritize essential industries
Railroad Administration
The government took direct control of the nation's railroads from December 1917 until March 1920:
- Standardized equipment and procedures
- Coordinated schedules to eliminate competition
- Prioritized military shipments
- Improved efficiency by routing traffic more logically
This wartime experiment with nationalization ultimately led to the Transportation Act of 1920, which returned railroads to private ownership but under increased federal regulation.
Labor and Industrial Relations
The war created labor shortages and increased demand for industrial production, strengthening workers' bargaining position:
National War Labor Board
Established in 1918 and co-chaired by former President William Howard Taft:
- Mediated labor disputes to prevent strikes
- Established the 8-hour workday in many industries
- Recognized workers' right to organize unions
- Required equal pay for women doing the same work as men
Union membership grew from about 2.7 million in 1916 to more than 4 million by 1919.
Women in the Workforce
With men leaving for military service, women entered new occupations:
- Took jobs in munitions plants, shipyards, and steel mills
- Served as streetcar conductors, railroad workers, and office clerks
- Worked as nurses and clerical staff for the military
- Joined the military as yeomen (Navy) or in the Army Nurse Corps
About 1 million women entered the workforce during the war. While most were expected to return to domestic roles after the war, their experiences helped build momentum for the women's suffrage movement, which achieved victory with the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
Migration Patterns and Demographic Changes
The war dramatically affected the movement of people within the United States:
The Great Migration
The most significant population shift was the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to industrial cities in the North and Midwest:
- Labor shortages and higher wages in Northern factories created economic opportunities
- Southern racism, Jim Crow laws, and lynchings provided powerful push factors
- Between 1916 and 1920, over 500,000 African Americans moved north
- Cities like Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, and New York saw their Black populations grow dramatically
This mass migration changed the racial composition of northern cities and laid the groundwork for the Harlem Renaissance and civil rights activism in the coming decades.
New Limits on Immigration
European immigration, which had reached record levels before the war, virtually stopped during the conflict. This led to:
- Increased opportunities for native-born workers and internal migrants
- Growing nativist sentiment against immigrants, especially those from southern and eastern Europe
- Mounting fears of foreign radicals and revolutionaries
- Pressure for immigration restriction, which would culminate in the quota laws of the 1920s
Wartime Housing Crisis
The sudden influx of workers into industrial centers created severe housing shortages:
- Workers often lived in overcrowded, substandard housing
- Racial tensions increased as groups competed for limited housing
- The government built some emergency housing for workers in shipbuilding and munitions centers
Propaganda and Public Opinion
The government worked to shape public opinion through the Committee on Public Information (CPI), headed by journalist George Creel:
- Distributed millions of pamphlets, posters, and press releases
- Recruited 75,000 "Four-Minute Men" to deliver patriotic speeches in theaters
- Produced films promoting the war effort
- Coordinated with advertising agencies to create iconic posters (like Uncle Sam's "I Want YOU")
- Encouraged reporting that portrayed Germans as savage "Huns"
The CPI's efforts helped transform a reluctant public into enthusiastic supporters of the war and demonstrated the power of modern mass media to shape public opinion.
The Red Scare and Postwar Tensions
As the war ended, fear of communism replaced fear of Germany, leading to the First Red Scare (1919-1920):
- The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) sparked fears of communist revolution in America
- A series of mail bombs targeting government officials in 1919 intensified these fears
- Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer conducted raids against suspected radicals (the "Palmer Raids")
- Thousands of immigrants were arrested without warrants, and hundreds were deported
- Labor unions faced accusations of radical influence, undermining their wartime gains
This period of anti-communist hysteria foreshadowed the more extensive Second Red Scare that would occur after World War II.
Legacy of the World War I Home Front
The home front experience during World War I left lasting marks on American society. The expansion of federal power, restrictions on civil liberties, changing demographics, and new roles for women and minorities all contributed to the social tensions of the 1920s. The war accelerated trends already underway in American society—urbanization, industrialization, government regulation, and changing gender and racial dynamics—and set the stage for further transformations in the decades to come.
Key Terms to Review (36)
Alien & Sedition Acts: The Alien & Sedition Acts were a series of four laws enacted in 1798 during the presidency of John Adams, aimed at strengthening national security and suppressing dissent amid fears of foreign influence and domestic unrest. These acts allowed the government to deport foreigners deemed dangerous and made it harder for immigrants to vote, while also criminalizing criticism of the government. This legislation sparked significant controversy and debate about civil liberties and the limits of governmental power, which reverberated through later political developments, especially during times of national crisis.
Anti-German Sentiment: Anti-German sentiment refers to the widespread hostility and prejudice directed toward Germans and German-Americans during World War I. This sentiment was fueled by propaganda, fear of espionage, and the perception of Germans as enemies in a time of war, leading to social ostracism, violence, and the suppression of German culture and language in the United States.
Austria-Hungary: Austria-Hungary was a dual monarchy in Central Europe from 1867 until its dissolution in 1918, comprising the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. It played a pivotal role in World War I, as its actions and alliances significantly influenced the course of the war and the political landscape of Europe.
Bolshevik Revolution: The Bolshevik Revolution, also known as the October Revolution, was a 1917 uprising in Russia that led to the overthrow of the provisional government and the establishment of a communist government led by the Bolshevik Party. This revolution marked a pivotal moment in world history, as it resulted in the rise of Soviet power and influenced political ideologies worldwide, particularly during and after World War I and throughout the 1920s.
Central Powers: The Central Powers were a military alliance during World War I, primarily consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. This coalition fought against the Allied Powers and was characterized by its shared interests in expanding their territories and asserting dominance in Europe and beyond. Their defeat in 1918 had profound implications for post-war geopolitics and the future of international relations.
Civil War: The Civil War was a brutal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865, primarily over issues of slavery and states' rights. This war not only pitted the Northern states (the Union) against the Southern states (the Confederacy) but also reshaped the nation's political, social, and economic landscape, leading to significant changes in American society.
Committee on Public Information (CPI): The Committee on Public Information (CPI) was a U.S. government agency established in 1917 during World War I to promote the war effort and encourage public support for the conflict. It aimed to influence public opinion through propaganda, using various media such as posters, films, and pamphlets to shape perceptions of the war, promote patriotism, and demonize the enemy. The CPI played a crucial role in mobilizing American society for the war effort and maintaining morale on the home front.
Communist takeover of Russia in 1917: The Communist takeover of Russia in 1917, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a pivotal event where the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized control of the Russian government. This revolution marked the end of centuries of imperial rule and the establishment of a socialist state, significantly influencing global politics and the course of World War I by leading to Russia's withdrawal from the conflict.
Eugene V. Debs: Eugene V. Debs was a prominent American labor leader and political activist, known for his role in founding the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and his candidacy for the presidency as a Socialist. His advocacy for workers' rights and social justice gained significant traction during the Gilded Age and into the World War I era, reflecting the growing discontent among the working class against corporate power and government inaction.
Food Administration: The Food Administration was a government agency established during World War I, responsible for regulating the production and distribution of food to support the war effort. Led by Herbert Hoover, the agency aimed to ensure adequate food supplies for both military personnel and civilians, promoting conservation and efficient use of resources. Its efforts were crucial in managing the American food supply during a time of increased demand and limited resources.
Four-Minute Men: The Four-Minute Men were a group of volunteers who delivered short speeches on behalf of the U.S. government during World War I, aiming to rally public support for the war effort. They played a significant role in the larger campaign of propaganda, using their speeches to promote patriotism, enlistment, and support for war-related initiatives. Their concise presentations were designed to engage audiences quickly and effectively in various settings, such as theaters and public gatherings.
Fourth Amendment Rights: Fourth Amendment Rights refer to the protections against unreasonable searches and seizures as outlined in the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This amendment ensures that individuals have a right to privacy and that law enforcement must obtain a warrant, based on probable cause, before conducting searches or seizing property. The significance of these rights became especially pronounced during World War I as issues of civil liberties were challenged amidst national security concerns.
Frank Little: Frank Little was an American labor leader and prominent member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), known for his radical views and activism during the early 20th century, particularly in the context of labor rights during World War I. His fierce advocacy for workers' rights and opposition to the war effort highlighted the tensions between government interests and labor movements during this tumultuous period.
Freedom of Speech: Freedom of Speech is a fundamental right that allows individuals to express their opinions, ideas, and beliefs without fear of government censorship or punishment. This right is essential in democratic societies as it promotes open discourse, debate, and the exchange of ideas, particularly during times of national conflict such as World War I.
Germany: Germany is a central European country with a rich history that has significantly influenced global events, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its unification in 1871 under Otto von Bismarck set the stage for its role in World War I and World War II, as well as shaping postwar diplomacy and international relations in Europe.
Great Migration: The Great Migration refers to the mass movement of over six million African Americans from the rural Southern United States to urban areas in the North and West between 1916 and 1970. This significant demographic shift was driven by a combination of push factors like racial discrimination, economic hardship, and the lure of better job opportunities in industrial cities.
Homefront Changes in Work & Migration: Homefront changes in work and migration refer to the significant shifts in labor dynamics and population movement that occurred within the United States during World War I. As men were drafted into military service, women and minorities stepped into roles traditionally held by men, leading to increased participation in the workforce. This era also saw a great migration of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North, driven by the demand for labor in war industries and the promise of better opportunities.
Immigration & Nativism: Immigration refers to the movement of people into a country to live and work there, while nativism is a political policy favoring the interests of native-born inhabitants over those of immigrants. During times of conflict, such as World War I, nativism often intensified as existing citizens became wary of immigrants, associating them with potential threats to national security and cultural identity. This fear and suspicion can lead to restrictive immigration laws and social tensions between different cultural groups.
Industrial Workers of the World: The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was a radical labor union founded in 1905 that aimed to unite all workers under one big union, advocating for better working conditions, fair wages, and the overthrow of the capitalist system. The IWW played a significant role during World War I, as its activism often clashed with the government's efforts to promote patriotism and suppress dissent in the war effort.
Jim Crow Segregation: Jim Crow Segregation refers to a system of institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination enforced in the Southern United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century. This system created a legal framework that upheld racial inequality through laws, customs, and practices that discriminated against African Americans in all aspects of public life, including education, transportation, and voting rights. It is important to understand this term in the context of how it shaped the social and political landscape during significant events like World War I, where African Americans served in the military yet returned to a society still deeply entrenched in racial prejudice.
Liberty Cabbage: Liberty Cabbage was a term used during World War I to refer to sauerkraut, reflecting the anti-German sentiment prevalent in the United States at the time. The renaming was part of a broader campaign to promote patriotism and discourage anything associated with Germany, as the nation was viewed as the enemy during the war. This term highlights the social and cultural impacts of nationalism and propaganda in American society.
Lincoln’s suspension of habeas corpus: Lincoln’s suspension of habeas corpus refers to President Abraham Lincoln's decision during the Civil War to temporarily suspend the constitutional right that protects individuals from unlawful detention. This controversial action allowed for the arrest and detention of individuals deemed threats to national security without the requirement of formal charges, reflecting the tension between civil liberties and national security during a time of crisis.
National War Labor Board: The National War Labor Board (NWLB) was established in 1918 to mediate labor disputes during World War I, ensuring that the war effort was not disrupted by strikes or labor unrest. It aimed to maintain production and labor peace by negotiating agreements between labor and management, helping to set fair wages and working conditions. The NWLB also promoted the idea that workers had rights, which contributed to the growth of unions and laid the groundwork for labor reforms in the post-war period.
Palmer Raids: The Palmer Raids were a series of government actions conducted in 1919 and 1920 aimed at arresting and deporting radical leftists, especially anarchists and communists, in the United States. These raids were spearheaded by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and were a response to the rising fear of communism and anarchist violence following World War I, reflecting the broader social tensions of the time.
Propaganda: Propaganda refers to the systematic effort to influence public opinion and behavior, often through the use of misleading or biased information. During World War I, propaganda was utilized extensively by governments to mobilize support for the war, shape perceptions of the enemy, and promote national unity. It played a crucial role in rallying citizens and encouraging enlistment, war bond purchases, and compliance with wartime regulations.
Quasi War: The Quasi War was an undeclared naval conflict between the United States and France that lasted from 1798 to 1800. It stemmed from growing tensions over trade and diplomacy following the French Revolution and was characterized by a series of naval engagements in the Caribbean and the Atlantic. This conflict played a crucial role in shaping early American foreign policy and military strategy, reflecting the complexities of the new republic's international relationships.
Red Scare of 1919: The Red Scare of 1919 refers to the widespread fear of communism and anarchism in the United States following World War I, marked by heightened anti-immigrant sentiment and a series of government actions aimed at suppressing perceived threats. This period was characterized by significant social unrest, labor strikes, and violent actions against radicals, leading to government crackdowns like the Palmer Raids. The Red Scare reflected the anxiety of a nation transitioning from wartime to peacetime and grappling with internal divisions.
Robert Prager: Robert Prager was a German immigrant who became a symbol of anti-German sentiment during World War I, tragically known for being lynched by a mob in 1918. His death highlighted the intense nationalistic fervor and xenophobia that swept across the United States during the war, where suspicion towards German-Americans reached alarming levels, resulting in violence and discrimination.
Schenck v. United States: Schenck v. United States is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1919 that established the 'clear and present danger' test for determining when speech could be limited under the First Amendment. This case arose during World War I when Charles Schenck was charged with distributing leaflets that opposed the draft, leading to a significant discussion about civil liberties and national security during wartime.
Sedition Act: The Sedition Act was a law enacted in 1798 that made it a crime to publish false, scandalous, or malicious writing against the government or its officials. This act was part of a larger set of laws known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were controversial because they were seen as an infringement on the First Amendment rights to free speech and press, especially during a time of national security concerns.
Socialist Party Candidate for President in 1920: The Socialist Party Candidate for President in 1920 was Eugene V. Debs, a prominent labor leader and political activist who ran on a platform advocating for socialism and workers' rights during a time of post-war turmoil and economic challenges. Debs's campaign emerged against the backdrop of World War I, the Red Scare, and significant social changes in the United States, representing a crucial moment for leftist politics in a country grappling with its identity and future direction.
Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in the United States, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and federal law. It plays a crucial role in shaping legal precedents and can influence various aspects of American life, including civil rights, federal power, and social policies.
Urbanization: Urbanization is the process by which an increasing percentage of a population comes to live in urban areas, resulting in the growth and expansion of cities. This phenomenon has been driven by various factors, including economic opportunities, technological advancements, and social changes, significantly impacting societal structures and cultural dynamics.
War Industries Board: The War Industries Board (WIB) was a U.S. government agency established in July 1917 to coordinate the production of war materials during World War I. It played a crucial role in managing the transition of industries from peacetime to wartime production, ensuring that the military and allies received necessary supplies while also promoting efficiency and eliminating waste.
Wilson administration: The Wilson administration refers to the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, who served from 1913 to 1921, during which significant events such as World War I shaped American and global history. Wilson’s leadership was marked by his progressive domestic policies and his vision for a new world order based on democracy and collective security, particularly after the United States entered the war in 1917.
William Howard Taft: William Howard Taft was the 27th President of the United States, serving from 1909 to 1913, and later became the 10th Chief Justice of the United States. His presidency is often associated with the Progressive Era due to his support for certain reforms, though he faced criticism for not fully embracing the progressive agenda. After his presidency, he played a significant role in international relations, particularly during World War I and in America's imperial pursuits.