AP US History
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6.5 Technological Innovation
Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024
The Technology Boom After the Civil War
After the Civil War, America experienced an amazing burst of new inventions and technologies. These new tools and machines helped businesses make more products, use natural resources better, and reach new markets. This technological revolution changed how Americans lived, worked, and communicated with each other.
- Why Technology Grew So Quickly:
- End of Civil War allowed focus on peacetime development
- Government support through patents and land grants
- Abundant natural resources (coal, iron, oil)
- Growing population created larger markets
- American culture encouraged practical invention
Communications Revolution
New communication technologies connected America and eventually the world. The telegraph and telephone allowed information to travel almost instantly over long distances. These innovations revolutionized how businesses operated and how people communicated.
- Telegraph Expansion:
- Samuel F.B. Morse's invention spread nationwide
- Cyrus Field created transatlantic cable (1866)
- Allowed messages to travel instantly over long distances
- Western Union dominated telegraph industry
- Changed how businesses operated and news spread
- Railroad companies used telegraphs to coordinate train movements
- Telephone Development:
- Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone (1876)
- First telephone exchanges opened in Connecticut (1878)
- By 1900, over 1.5 million telephones in use
- Created totally new industry with thousands of jobs
- Eventually connected homes and businesses across America
- Bell Telephone Company (later AT&T) dominated the industry
- Business Impact:
- Companies could coordinate across multiple locations
- Orders could be placed and confirmed immediately
- Markets responded faster to news and information
- National businesses became more practical to operate
- Created new business opportunities in communication services
Industrial Innovations
New manufacturing technologies transformed American industry. Innovations in steel, textiles, and oil production allowed businesses to make more products at lower costs. These advances created new industries and dramatically expanded existing ones.
- Steel Production Revolution:
- Bessemer process made steel production much faster and cheaper
- Andrew Carnegie adopted and improved steel manufacturing
- U.S. steel production grew from 77,000 tons in 1870 to 11.4 million tons by 1900
- Enabled construction of:
- Skyscrapers with steel frames
- Stronger bridges and railroads
- More durable machinery
- Larger ships and factories
- Steel replaced iron in most major applications
- Textile Manufacturing Advances:
- Power looms greatly increased cloth production
- Electric sewing machines transformed clothing manufacturing
- Factory-made clothes became affordable for average Americans
- Ready-to-wear clothing replaced home-made garments
- New England textile mills expanded dramatically
- Oil Industry Development:
- Edwin Drake drilled first successful oil well (1859)
- John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil dominated refining
- Kerosene became primary lighting fuel before electricity
- Oil-based lubricants improved machine efficiency
- Later, gasoline powered internal combustion engines
- By 1900, oil became essential to American industry
Electrical Revolution
Electricity changed nearly every aspect of American life. Edison's light bulb and power stations brought electric lighting to cities, while Tesla and Westinghouse's alternating current system allowed electricity to travel long distances. Electric power transformed factories, transportation, and eventually homes.
- Electric Lighting Innovation:
- Thomas Edison invented practical incandescent light bulb (1879)
- Built first electric power station in Manhattan (1882)
- Edison's direct current (DC) system had limited range
- Electric lighting replaced gas lamps in cities
- Extended productive hours in factories and businesses
- Created safer working conditions than gas lighting
- Alternating Current Development:
- Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse developed AC system
- AC could transmit electricity over much greater distances
- Resolved "War of Currents" with Edison's DC system
- Made widespread electrical distribution possible
- Allowed factories to locate away from water power sources
- General Electric and Westinghouse became industry leaders
- Electric Power Applications:
- Electric motors transformed factory production
- Electric streetcars revolutionized urban transportation
- Elevators made taller buildings practical
- Early electric appliances began appearing in homes
- Electric power became essential infrastructure for modern cities
Technology's Impact on Business and Society
The table below summarizes how technological innovations affected different aspects of American life and business:
| Sector | Key Technologies | Major Effects |
|---|---|---|
| Manufacturing | Steel production, Electric motors, Machine tools | Mass production, Lower costs, Standardized products, Factory expansion |
| Communications | Telegraph, Telephone, Printing presses | Instant long-distance communication, National businesses, Mass media development |
| Transportation | Railroads, Streetcars, Steam engines, Early automobiles | National markets, Urban expansion, Resource access, Suburban growth |
| Energy | Electricity, Oil refining, Coal mining | Factory location flexibility, Extended work hours, New consumer products, Machine power |
| Resource Extraction | Mining equipment, Oil drilling, Logging machinery | Greater access to resources, Higher production volumes, Environmental impacts |
| Daily Life | Electric lighting, Home appliances, Mass-produced goods | Changed work patterns, More consumer goods, Urban lifestyle changes |
Transportation Advances
Better transportation systems connected America's vast territory. Railroads expanded dramatically, with improved technology allowing faster, safer travel and shipping. Urban transportation systems like electric streetcars and elevated railways transformed city life and growth.
- Railroad Expansion and Improvement:
- Transcontinental railroad completed (1869)
- Track mileage grew from 35,000 miles (1865) to 200,000 miles (1900)
- Standard gauge adopted, allowing trains to use same tracks
- Air brakes and automatic couplers improved safety
- Steel rails replaced iron, allowing heavier loads
- Refrigerated cars allowed shipping of meat and produce
- Created truly national market for goods
- Urban Transportation:
- Horse-drawn streetcars replaced by electric trolleys
- Brooklyn Bridge (1883) and other new bridges connected urban areas
- Commuter railroads allowed growth of suburbs
- Cable cars allowed transit in hilly cities like San Francisco
- Elevated railways in New York and Chicago
- Early Automobile Development:
- Internal combustion engine refined
- Early experimental automobiles appeared in 1890s
- Set stage for transportation revolution of early 20th century
The Impact on Business and Production
Technological innovations transformed how businesses operated and produced goods. Companies could make products faster, cheaper, and in much larger quantities than ever before. These advances helped businesses extract natural resources more efficiently and reach national markets.
- Mass Production Development:
- Interchangeable parts became standard
- Assembly line techniques improved efficiency
- Division of labor increased productivity
- Machine tools replaced hand tools
- Greater output with less skilled labor
- Products became more standardized and affordable
- Natural Resource Extraction:
- Steam-powered mining equipment accessed deeper mineral deposits
- New drilling technologies reached more oil
- Improved refining methods utilized resources more completely
- Logging equipment harvested timber more efficiently
- Railroad access to remote areas opened new resource frontiers
- New Business Opportunities:
- Entirely new industries emerged (electricity, telephones, etc.)
- Existing industries transformed by new technologies
- Mass marketing became necessary to sell increased production
- Department stores and mail-order catalogs developed
- National brands appeared with mass production
Impact on American Life
New technologies changed how ordinary Americans lived their daily lives. Electric lighting extended productive hours, while mass-produced goods became more affordable and widely available. Work patterns shifted as machines increasingly determined the pace and nature of both factory and office jobs.
- Changes in Daily Life:
- Electric lighting extended productive and leisure hours
- Mass-produced goods became more affordable
- Ready-made clothing replaced home production
- New home appliances began to reduce household labor
- Telephones connected family members across distances
- Urban Development:
- Skyscrapers created more dense city centers
- Electric streetcars allowed cities to expand outward
- Indoor plumbing and sanitation improved with new technology
- Electric street lighting made cities safer at night
- Telegraph and telephone wires created new urban landscape
- Work Transformation:
- Factory jobs increasingly involved operating machines
- New technical jobs required specialized training
- Office work expanded with new business communication needs
- Traditional craftsmen often replaced by factory production
- Work pace often determined by machines rather than workers
The Technology Legacy
The technological revolution of 1865-1898 transformed America from a primarily agricultural nation into an industrial powerhouse. These innovations dramatically increased the production of goods while creating new industries and job opportunities. Businesses that embraced new technologies gained significant advantages in efficiency and scale, setting the foundation for American economic dominance in the 20th century. Though these advances brought many benefits, they also created challenges including workplace dangers, environmental damage, and economic disruption for traditional workers.
Key Terms to Review (35)
Alexander Graham Bell: Alexander Graham Bell was an inventor, scientist, and teacher best known for his invention of the telephone, which revolutionized communication technology in the late 19th century. His work not only transformed personal and business interactions but also paved the way for future technological innovations that shaped modern society.
Alternating Current Motor: An Alternating Current Motor is an electrical device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy through the use of alternating current (AC) electricity. These motors are pivotal in various applications, as they operate using the principles of electromagnetism, allowing for efficient energy use and consistent performance in numerous industrial and household settings.
Alternating Current Transmission System: An Alternating Current Transmission System is a method of delivering electrical power using alternating current (AC) to transmit electricity over long distances. This system allows for efficient energy transfer and the use of transformers to step up voltage for transmission and step it down for local distribution, revolutionizing the electrical grid and making widespread electrification possible.
Andrew Carnegie: Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist who led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. His success and wealth epitomized the rise of industrial capitalism, while his later philanthropic efforts reflected the moral dilemmas and social responsibilities associated with immense wealth during a time of significant social change.
Assembly Line Production: Assembly Line Production is a manufacturing process where products are assembled in a sequential manner, with each worker or machine performing a specific task at a designated station. This method greatly increased efficiency and output, revolutionizing the production industry, particularly in the early 20th century, leading to lower costs and making goods more accessible to the general public.
Automatic Looms: Automatic looms are mechanized weaving devices that significantly increased the speed and efficiency of textile production by automating the process of weaving fabric. These innovations played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution, transforming the textile industry and contributing to the rise of factory-based production systems.
Chicago: Chicago is a major city located in the Midwest region of the United States, known for its significant contributions to technological innovation during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The city's rapid growth was fueled by its strategic location as a transportation hub, leading to advances in infrastructure, manufacturing, and architecture. Chicago's dynamic development showcased the transformative impact of industrialization on urban life and contributed to broader technological advancements in America.
Clothing Industry: The clothing industry encompasses the design, production, and marketing of garments and textiles, playing a crucial role in both the economy and culture. This industry has evolved significantly over time, particularly with advancements in technology that have revolutionized manufacturing processes, distribution methods, and consumer access. Innovations in machinery, materials, and retail strategies have greatly shaped the landscape of fashion and clothing consumption.
Cyrus Field: Cyrus Field was an American entrepreneur and financier best known for his role in the establishment of the first transatlantic telegraph cable, which connected North America and Europe. His vision and perseverance in overcoming technical and financial challenges represented a significant advancement in communication technology during the 19th century, showcasing how technological innovation could shrink distances and facilitate international communication.
Department Store: A department store is a large retail establishment that offers a wide variety of goods organized into different departments, such as clothing, home goods, and cosmetics. These stores revolutionized shopping by creating a one-stop shopping experience, blending convenience with a diverse selection of products, and were significant in the context of technological innovation as they utilized modern marketing and merchandising techniques.
Electric Elevator: The electric elevator is a type of vertical transportation system powered by electric motors, enabling the movement of people and goods between different levels of a building. This innovation transformed urban architecture, allowing for the construction of taller buildings, known as skyscrapers, and significantly changing how cities developed and functioned.
Electric Sewing Machines: Electric sewing machines are powered devices that automate the process of sewing fabric together using a motor-driven mechanism, replacing the manual treadle machines that preceded them. They revolutionized garment production and personal sewing by increasing speed, efficiency, and ease of use, which contributed significantly to the rise of the ready-made clothing industry and transformed domestic life.
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the movement of charged particles, primarily electrons. It has transformed daily life and industrial processes, serving as a key driver of technological innovation and advancement during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The harnessing of electricity enabled new inventions and systems that changed the way people lived, worked, and interacted with their environment.
General Electric: General Electric (GE) is an American multinational conglomerate founded in 1892, known for its wide array of products and services in sectors like aviation, healthcare, renewable energy, and power generation. GE has played a pivotal role in technological innovation and industrial development, shaping modern industries through research and development and the introduction of groundbreaking technologies.
George Westinghouse: George Westinghouse was an American inventor and industrialist who founded the Westinghouse Electric Company in 1886. He is best known for his contributions to the development of the alternating current (AC) electrical system, which revolutionized the way electricity was generated, transmitted, and used across the United States, significantly impacting technological innovation during the Industrial Revolution.
Henry Bessemer's Process of Steel Production: Henry Bessemer's Process of Steel Production is an innovative method developed in the 1850s for converting molten pig iron into steel by blowing air through the molten iron to remove impurities. This process significantly lowered the cost and time required for steel production, making steel more accessible and paving the way for its extensive use in construction, railways, and machinery during the Industrial Revolution.
High Speed Spindle: A high speed spindle is a crucial component in advanced machining and manufacturing processes, designed to rotate cutting tools at significantly higher speeds than traditional spindles. This innovation allows for faster production rates, improved surface finishes, and the ability to work with harder materials, thereby enhancing efficiency and precision in manufacturing operations.
Incandescent Lightbulb: The incandescent lightbulb is an electric light source that produces illumination through a filament heated to a high temperature until it glows. This invention significantly transformed daily life by extending productive hours beyond daylight and revolutionizing industries reliant on artificial lighting.
Internal Combustion Engine: The internal combustion engine is a type of heat engine that converts fuel into mechanical energy through the combustion of fuel within a confined space, typically in cylinders. This innovation played a crucial role in transforming transportation and industry during the period of rapid industrial growth, significantly contributing to the rise of automobiles and advancements in machinery.
Kerosene: Kerosene is a flammable hydrocarbon liquid derived from petroleum, commonly used as fuel for heating and lighting. In the context of technological innovation, kerosene played a pivotal role in transforming energy consumption, providing a more efficient and cleaner alternative to whale oil and other traditional sources of illumination and heat.
Labor Movement: The Labor Movement refers to the collective organization and advocacy of workers aimed at improving their rights, wages, working conditions, and overall social justice. This movement emerged prominently during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the significant social and economic changes brought on by industrialization and urbanization. As workers faced harsh conditions in factories and industries, they began to unite, form unions, and engage in strikes and protests to push for better treatment and fair labor practices.
Mail-Order Catalog: A mail-order catalog is a printed or digital publication that showcases a company's products, allowing customers to place orders through the mail or online without needing to visit a physical store. This innovation transformed retail by making products accessible to consumers in remote areas and significantly broadened market reach, connecting manufacturers directly with customers and paving the way for future e-commerce.
New York: New York is a state in the northeastern United States that was originally founded as a British colony, playing a crucial role in American history from its early days. It became a melting pot of cultures and a center for trade and commerce, which significantly contributed to the development of an American identity. As the site of significant technological innovation and economic expansion during the Market Revolution, New York's influence grew immensely, especially during the Gilded Age when it became a hub for politics and social change.
Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh is a major city in Pennsylvania known for its rich industrial history and strategic location at the confluence of three rivers. Its development as a steel manufacturing hub in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was significantly influenced by technological advancements in production processes and transportation, which shaped both its economy and the broader industrial landscape of the United States.
Railroads: Railroads are a system of tracks and trains designed for the transportation of goods and people over long distances. They played a crucial role in connecting different regions, promoting economic growth, and facilitating westward expansion, while also significantly influencing industrialization and technological advancements.
Samuel F.B. Morse: Samuel F.B. Morse was an American inventor and artist, best known for developing the single-wire telegraph system and Morse code in the early 19th century. His innovations revolutionized communication by allowing messages to be sent over long distances almost instantaneously, thereby transforming societal interactions and economic activities in a rapidly changing world.
Standard Oil: Standard Oil was an American oil producing, refining, and marketing company founded by John D. Rockefeller in 1870. It became a symbol of the rise of industrial capitalism and monopolistic practices in the late 19th century, playing a crucial role in transforming the energy sector and shaping the modern economy.
Steamships: Steamships are vessels powered by steam engines that revolutionized transportation on water during the 19th century. These ships enabled faster travel and more efficient trade, connecting distant regions and transforming economies. Steamships played a crucial role in expanding maritime trade, the movement of people, and the overall technological innovation of the Industrial Revolution.
Steam Engines: Steam engines are machines that convert the energy stored in steam into mechanical work, fundamentally changing transportation and manufacturing processes during the Industrial Revolution. By harnessing the power of steam produced from boiling water, these engines enabled the development of locomotives and steamships, greatly enhancing the speed and efficiency of travel and trade.
Telephone: The telephone is a communication device that converts sound into electrical signals and transmits them over distances, revolutionizing the way people connect with one another. This invention played a crucial role in transforming society by enabling instant communication, which contributed to the growth of businesses, the development of the middle class, and the rise of industrial capitalism, creating new economic opportunities and altering social interactions.
Telegraph: The telegraph was a revolutionary communication technology that allowed for the transmission of messages over long distances through electrical signals. This innovation drastically changed the way information was shared, facilitating quicker communication that supported economic growth, regional integration, and political developments across the nation.
Thomas Edison: Thomas Edison was an American inventor and businessman, best known for his development of the electric light bulb and numerous other innovations that significantly influenced industrialization and technology during the Gilded Age. His work epitomized the era's focus on technological innovation, shaping modern life with inventions that transformed communication, entertainment, and energy use.
Transatlantic Cable: The Transatlantic Cable refers to a series of underwater cables that were laid across the Atlantic Ocean to enable telecommunication between North America and Europe. This groundbreaking technological innovation revolutionized long-distance communication, allowing messages to be transmitted in real-time, drastically reducing the time it took to send information across the ocean from weeks to mere minutes.
Trade Unions: Trade unions are organized associations of workers formed to protect and advance their rights and interests, particularly concerning wages, working conditions, and hours. They emerged as a response to the changing labor landscape brought on by industrialization and economic transformation, aiming to give workers a collective voice in negotiations with employers.
Vertical Integration: Vertical integration is a business strategy where a company controls multiple stages of production or distribution within the same industry. This approach allows companies to reduce costs, increase efficiency, and enhance control over the supply chain. By owning everything from raw materials to manufacturing to distribution, firms can streamline operations and improve profitability, which became a hallmark of industrial capitalism during periods of rapid technological innovation.