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6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age
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The Gilded Age (1870s-1890s) was a time of rapid industrial growth, increasing wealth for business leaders, and worsening conditions for many workers and immigrants. This period saw numerous reform movements emerge to address social problems caused by industrialization. Reformers proposed different solutions to issues like poverty, dangerous working conditions, and political corruption.
Reform Movements and Alternative Visions
As factories and cities grew, many Americans began questioning whether unregulated capitalism was creating more problems than progress. Reformers from different backgrounds offered alternatives to address the downsides of industrialization.
Social Gospel Movement
The Social Gospel movement used Christian teachings to address social problems, arguing that Christians had a responsibility to improve society.
- Religious movement that taught Christians should create a better society by fixing social problems
- Applied Christian principles to issues like poverty, inequality, and poor working conditions
- Led by ministers like Walter Rauschenbusch who wrote "Christianity and the Social Crisis" (1907), arguing Christians should reform society, not just save individual souls
- Created organizations to help those in need:
- Salvation Army: Started in America in 1880, provided food, shelter, and help to the urban poor
- YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association): Offered affordable housing and healthy activities for young men moving to cities
- Cardinal James Gibbons defended workers' rights from a Catholic perspective, supporting labor unions
- Dwight Moody led revival meetings focusing on personal salvation while addressing social issues
The Social Gospel provided moral reasons for many reform efforts and influenced both private charities and later government programs.
Settlement Houses
Settlement houses were community centers in poor neighborhoods where educated reformers lived among immigrants and workers to provide services and push for change.
- Community centers in poor urban neighborhoods providing services to immigrants and workers
- Middle and upper-class reformers lived or "settled" in poor neighborhoods to provide help and understand urban problems firsthand
- Jane Addams founded Hull House in Chicago (1889), the most famous settlement house in America
- Settlement houses offered many services:
- Education and language classes to help immigrants adjust to America
- Childcare so mothers could work to support their families
- Job training to help people find better employment
- Health services for families without access to doctors
- Cultural activities to preserve immigrant traditions while promoting American citizenship
- Advocacy for better laws protecting workers, housing conditions, and public health
- Most settlement workers were college-educated women who found meaningful careers outside traditional roles as wives and mothers
- By 1910, over 400 settlement houses operated across American cities, becoming important neighborhood centers
Settlement houses addressed immediate needs of the poor while pushing for bigger changes in laws and society.
Muckraking Journalism
"Muckrakers" were journalists who exposed problems in American society through newspaper and magazine articles, bringing attention to issues the public often couldn't see.
- Journalists who investigated corruption, dangerous conditions, and social problems
- Published their findings in popular magazines read by millions of Americans
- Important muckrakers included:
- Ida Tarbell, who showed how Standard Oil used unfair business practices
- Lincoln Steffens, who exposed city government corruption in "The Shame of the Cities"
- Jacob Riis, whose photographs in "How the Other Half Lives" showed terrible slum conditions
- Upton Sinclair, whose novel "The Jungle" (1906) revealed disgusting conditions in meatpacking plants
- Their work built public support for reforms by making abstract problems real and personal to readers
- Combined factual reporting with emotional appeals to motivate middle-class Americans to demand change
- Used new technology like photography and cheaper printing to reach wide audiences
Muckraking journalism helped ordinary Americans understand social problems they might never encounter in their own lives, creating pressure for reform.
Literary and Artistic Reform
Writers and artists contributed to reform by showing the harsh realities of American life and proposing new ways to think about society's problems.
- The Ashcan School artists (Robert Henri, John Sloan, George Bellows) painted realistic urban scenes showing poverty and working-class life instead of idealized subjects
- Realist writers showed social problems in their novels:
- Theodore Dreiser examined the human cost of capitalism in "Sister Carrie"
- Stephen Crane depicted urban poverty in "Maggie: A Girl of the Streets"
- Frank Norris criticized railroad monopolies in "The Octopus"
- Pragmatism developed as a practical American philosophy that judged ideas by their usefulness in solving problems:
- John Dewey applied pragmatism to education, promoting "learning by doing"
- William James argued that ideas should be judged by their real-world results
- Jane Addams developed practical approaches to social work and reform
These cultural reformers changed how Americans understood their society, providing both criticism and new frameworks for creating change.
Economic Alternatives
Some reformers proposed completely different economic systems to replace or modify industrial capitalism.
| Movement | Key Figures | Main Ideas | Notable Contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Agrarians | Farmers' Alliances, Populist Party | Support for farmers; opposition to banks and railroads; promotion of rural values | Proposed farmer-owned cooperatives, government storage facilities for crops, and creating more money through silver coinage |
| Utopians | Edward Bellamy, author of "Looking Backward" (1888) | Creation of ideal communities as alternatives to competitive capitalism | Bellamy's novel described a future socialist society with national ownership of industry and economic equality |
| Socialists | Eugene V. Debs, "Appeal to Reason" newspaper | Worker ownership of factories; end of wage labor; criticism of capitalism as inherently unfair | Organized labor unions; established Socialist Party of America (1901); ran candidates for office; introduced Marxist ideas |
| Anarchists | Emma Goldman, Alexander Berkman | Opposition to all forms of government control; radical individual freedom | Organized workers outside traditional unions; published radical newspapers; used direct action tactics |
| Single-Tax Movement | Henry George, author of "Progress and Poverty" (1879) | Tax on land value to reduce speculation and inequality | Proposed replacing all taxes with a single tax on land value to address unfair wealth distribution |
| These economic alternatives never gained majority support but influenced reform efforts and provided criticisms that shaped future economic policies. |
Women's Reform Efforts
Women played major roles in Gilded Age reform movements despite lacking the right to vote. Women reformers addressed both women's issues and broader social concerns, often connecting the two.
Women's Suffrage Movement
The women's suffrage movement gained strength during the Gilded Age, working toward the right to vote that would finally be won in 1920.
- National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) formed in 1890 by combining competing organizations
- Led by Susan B. Anthony and later Carrie Chapman Catt, who developed the "Winning Plan" strategy
- Built on decades of organizing since the Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
- Suffered a setback in Minor v. Happersett (1875), when the Supreme Court ruled the 14th Amendment did not give women voting rights
- Used two main strategies:
- State-by-state campaigns, winning full voting rights in Wyoming (1890), Colorado (1893), Idaho and Utah (1896)
- Building support for a constitutional amendment
- Argued women voters would bring moral influence to politics and help solve social problems
- By 1900, women had won partial voting rights (school elections, local issues, or property tax votes) in many states
- New group of more confrontational suffragists emerged around 1910, including Alice Paul, who organized protests and hunger strikes
The suffrage movement represented women's demand for full citizenship and challenged traditional ideas about women's proper place in society.
Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
The WCTU became the largest women's organization of its time, connecting alcohol abuse to other social problems that affected women and families.
- Founded in 1874, advocated for banning alcohol production and sales
- Connected drinking to domestic violence, family poverty, and workplace accidents
- Led by Frances Willard (1879-1898), who expanded the group's mission beyond just alcohol to include:
- Women's voting rights as "home protection ballot"
- Prison reform and raising the age of consent for girls
- Workplace protections for women and children
- Public health campaigns
- Adopted the slogan "Do Everything" to address connected social problems
- Used education, petitions, and political pressure to achieve goals
- Worked with the Anti-Saloon League (founded 1893) to push for prohibition laws
- By 1890, had 150,000 members and chapters in every state
- Gave women leadership training and public speaking experience
The WCTU framed temperance as women protecting families from harm, turning a moral campaign into a broader women's rights movement.
Women's Higher Education
Access to college education opened new doors for women and provided the knowledge and networks needed for reform work.
- More women attended college during the Gilded Age:
- Women's colleges grew (Vassar, Smith, Wellesley, Bryn Mawr)
- State universities began accepting women, especially in the Midwest
- By 1900, women made up 35% of college students nationwide
- Graduates often became teachers, social workers, and reformers
- College education gave women skills and networks for social activism
- Women created new academic fields like home economics and social work to make traditionally female activities into professions
- More women slowly gained access to law and medical schools
- College-educated women often remained single, forming a group of professional women dedicated to reform work
Higher education gave women knowledge, confidence, and connections that powered their reform activities, even without voting rights.
Women in Professional Fields
Women increasingly entered professional careers, challenging gender barriers while often working within acceptable roles for women.
- Teaching became mostly female (80% of teachers by 1900)
- Nursing became a profession through training programs established by Clara Barton and others
- Social work emerged as a female-dominated field through settlement houses
- Women created professional organizations like the Association of Collegiate Alumnae (later AAUW)
- Female religious leaders gained followers:
- Mary Baker Eddy founded Christian Science, giving women leadership roles
- Aimee Semple McPherson became a famous evangelist and used radio to reach audiences
- Women journalists entered male-dominated newspapers, often starting with "women's pages" but expanding to investigative reporting
- Women's clubs evolved from literary societies to civic improvement organizations addressing public health, education, and social welfare
Women professionals often justified their public roles as "social housekeeping," applying traditionally female caring values to social problems.
African American Reform Movements
Despite facing increasing discrimination and violence after Reconstruction ended, African Americans built powerful reform movements addressing both racial inequality and broader social concerns.
- W.E.B. Du Bois advocated for civil rights, higher education, and political equality:
- Challenged Booker T. Washington's approach of focusing on vocational training and economic progress before seeking political rights
- Co-founded the Niagara Movement (1905) and later the NAACP (1909)
- Promoted "Talented Tenth" idea that educated Black leaders would advance the race
- Ida B. Wells led anti-lynching campaign through journalism and speaking tours in America and Europe
- African American reformers created and supported educational institutions:
- Black colleges and universities expanded despite limited funding
- Schools taught both academic subjects and practical skills
- Black churches served as centers for community organizing and mutual assistance
- Black women's clubs formed a national federation in 1896 under Mary Church Terrell's leadership:
- Addressed both racial and gender discrimination
- Established kindergartens, homes for the elderly, and other community services
- Adopted motto "Lifting as We Climb," emphasizing service and racial advancement
- Economic self-help strategies included Black-owned businesses and consumer cooperatives
- Despite increased discrimination and Jim Crow segregation laws, reformers continued fighting for equality through legal challenges and community building
African American reformers addressed immediate community needs while laying groundwork for the 20th century civil rights movement.
Impact of Reform Movements
The diverse reform movements of the Gilded Age changed American society in both immediate and long-term ways, setting the stage for Progressive Era reforms.
- Raised public awareness about social problems through journalism and activism
- Created private charitable organizations and settlement houses that still exist today
- Developed new models for social services later adopted by government programs
- Expanded women's roles in public life through professional work and leadership
- Changed educational approaches and institutions at all levels
- Influenced Progressive Era political reforms including business regulation, prohibition, and women's suffrage
- Created new academic fields including sociology, economics, and social work
- Built organizations that became foundations for future reform movements
- Established partnerships between private organizations and government in addressing social problems
- Created new ways of thinking that challenged unregulated capitalism
The reform movements of the Gilded Age offered different responses to the problems created by rapid industrialization. While they didn't immediately transform American society or economic structures, they established important intellectual, organizational, and moral foundations for the more extensive political reforms of the Progressive Era that followed. These movements showed that society's problems could be addressed through organized action, providing models for future social change efforts throughout the 20th century.
Key Terms to Review (29)
19th Amendment: The 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote, marking a significant milestone in the women's suffrage movement. This amendment represented years of activism and struggle for women’s rights and was part of a broader reform movement that sought to expand democracy and address social injustices in American society.
Anti-Saloon League: The Anti-Saloon League was a prominent organization founded in the late 19th century that advocated for the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. It played a critical role in the temperance movement during the Gilded Age, seeking to influence legislation and public opinion against saloons and alcohol consumption. This league was effective in mobilizing grassroots support and aligning with other reform efforts that sought to address social issues related to alcohol abuse, ultimately contributing to the passage of the 18th Amendment.
Ashcan School: The Ashcan School was an artistic movement in the early 20th century that focused on portraying the everyday life of urban America, often emphasizing realism and gritty subjects. This movement emerged during the Gilded Age, a period characterized by rapid industrialization and social reform, highlighting the struggles of working-class individuals and the realities of city life. The Ashcan artists sought to challenge traditional art forms by depicting contemporary subjects and experiences, contributing to a broader conversation about social change and reform.
Cardinal James Gibbons: Cardinal James Gibbons was a prominent American Catholic leader in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, known for his advocacy of social justice, labor rights, and Americanism within the Catholic Church. He played a crucial role in bridging the gap between Catholicism and the American experience during the Gilded Age, emphasizing the importance of social reform and the church's engagement with societal issues.
Dwight Moody: Dwight Moody was a prominent American evangelist and religious educator during the late 19th century, known for his impactful revival meetings and efforts in the urban evangelism movement. His work focused on addressing the spiritual needs of individuals during the Gilded Age, a time marked by rapid industrialization and societal changes. Moody's ministry emphasized personal salvation, the importance of a deep relationship with God, and social reform through faith-based initiatives.
Economic Growth: Economic growth refers to an increase in the production of goods and services in an economy over time, usually measured as the percentage increase in real GDP. This growth is often driven by factors such as technological advancements, capital accumulation, and labor force increases, influencing various social and political aspects, including reform movements and immigration patterns.
Edward Bellamy: Edward Bellamy was an American novelist and social reformer best known for his utopian novel 'Looking Backward,' published in 1888. The book imagines a future society in the year 2000 where capitalism has been replaced by a form of socialism that promotes equality and cooperation, reflecting the social and economic reforms sought during the Gilded Age.
Federal Reserve: The Federal Reserve, commonly known as the Fed, is the central banking system of the United States, established in 1913 to provide the country with a safer and more flexible monetary and financial system. It plays a crucial role in regulating the economy through monetary policy, controlling inflation, and managing interest rates, thus influencing economic stability during times of reform, economic turmoil, and crisis.
Federal Trade Commission: The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is an independent agency of the U.S. government established in 1914 to promote consumer protection and prevent anticompetitive business practices. It plays a crucial role in regulating and overseeing trade practices, ensuring fair competition, and enforcing consumer rights, all of which were significant concerns during the Reform Era following the Gilded Age.
Inequality: Inequality refers to the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges among individuals or groups within society. During the Gilded Age, this term highlights the stark contrasts between the wealthy elite and the working class, emphasizing issues like economic disparity, lack of access to education, and the struggle for workers' rights. The growing divide sparked various reform movements aimed at addressing these injustices and promoting social change.
Mary Baker Eddy: Mary Baker Eddy was an American religious leader, author, and founder of Christian Science, a spiritual movement that emphasizes the power of prayer and faith in healing. Her teachings emerged during the Gilded Age, a time of significant social reform and transformation, and challenged conventional views on health and religion by promoting spiritual healing as a legitimate alternative to medical treatments.
McGuffey's Readers: McGuffey's Readers were a series of educational textbooks published in the mid-19th century, primarily used in American schools for teaching reading and moral values. These books played a significant role in shaping literacy and education during the Gilded Age, emphasizing moral lessons alongside language skills, which reflected the broader reform movements of the time.
Minor v. Happersett: Minor v. Happersett was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1875 that addressed the issue of women's suffrage in the United States. The Court ruled that the right to vote was not inherent to citizenship, thus denying women the constitutional right to vote and underscoring the limitations placed on women's rights during the Gilded Age.
Muckrakers: Muckrakers were investigative journalists and writers in the early 20th century who aimed to expose corruption, social injustices, and corporate wrongdoing. They played a crucial role in raising public awareness and prompting reforms during the Progressive Era by shedding light on issues like labor conditions, political corruption, and the consequences of industrialization.
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA): The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) was an organization formed in 1890 that aimed to secure women’s right to vote in the United States. It emerged as a unifying force for the suffrage movement, combining the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association. NAWSA played a crucial role in advocating for women's voting rights during the Gilded Age, employing both grassroots activism and lobbying efforts to influence legislation at local, state, and national levels.
Political Corruption: Political corruption refers to the misuse of power by government officials for illegitimate private gain, often leading to the erosion of public trust and effective governance. This term connects to various elements, including bribery, nepotism, and patronage, which were prevalent during periods marked by rapid economic growth and political upheaval. These corrupt practices not only shaped the political landscape but also sparked significant reform movements aimed at restoring integrity and accountability in government.
Poverty: Poverty refers to the condition of having insufficient financial resources to meet basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter. It plays a critical role in shaping social and economic policies, especially during periods of reform and government intervention aimed at improving living conditions for the impoverished.
Progressive Movement: The Progressive Movement was a social and political reform movement in the United States that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, aimed at addressing issues caused by industrialization, urbanization, and corruption. This movement sought to promote social justice, reduce the power of monopolies, improve labor conditions, and enhance democracy through various reforms such as women’s suffrage and antitrust legislation.
Pragmatism: Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs based on their practical consequences and real-world applications. It emphasizes the importance of action and results over abstract principles, making it particularly relevant during times of social reform and change, as seen in the Gilded Age, where practical solutions to societal issues took precedence over rigid ideologies.
Pure Food and Drug Act: The Pure Food and Drug Act was a landmark piece of legislation enacted in 1906 aimed at regulating the labeling and quality of food and pharmaceuticals. This act emerged from growing public concern about the safety and purity of consumables during a time marked by rapid industrialization and urbanization. It sought to eliminate misbranding and adulteration in food and drugs, which were rampant during the Gilded Age and spurred significant reform movements advocating for consumer protection.
Salvation Army: The Salvation Army is a Christian charitable organization founded in 1865 in London, England, by William Booth, aimed at providing social services and spiritual guidance to the poor and marginalized. It connects faith with action, addressing both physical and spiritual needs through various programs such as food distribution, shelter, and rehabilitation services, playing a crucial role in the reform movements during the Gilded Age.
Settlement Houses: Settlement houses were community centers established in urban areas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to provide social services, education, and support to immigrant families and the poor. They played a vital role in the integration of immigrants into American society, addressing issues like poverty, education, and labor rights, and promoting social reform.
Sherman Antitrust Act: The Sherman Antitrust Act, enacted in 1890, is a landmark federal statute aimed at preventing monopolies and promoting competition in American business. This law reflects the growing concern about the power of large corporations during a time of rapid industrialization, addressing practices that restrained trade and commerce. Its passage marked a significant shift towards government intervention in the economy, particularly in response to the excesses of the Gilded Age, and laid the foundation for future regulatory measures during the Progressive Era.
Social Gospel Movement: The Social Gospel Movement was a religious movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasizing the need for Christians to engage with social issues and advocate for social justice. It connected faith with social reform, pushing for improvements in living conditions, labor rights, and education, particularly during the challenges of the Gilded Age. This movement aimed to apply Christian ethics to social problems, influencing progressive reforms in American society.
Theodore Roosevelt: Theodore Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States, serving from 1901 to 1909. He was a driving force behind various progressive reforms and was known for his strong leadership during the Gilded Age, championing policies that addressed social injustices and economic inequalities while expanding America's role on the world stage.
W.E.B. DuBois: W.E.B. DuBois was an influential African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his advocacy for equal rights and higher education for African Americans. His ideas contrasted sharply with those of Booker T. Washington, emphasizing the need for political action and civil rights as essential to combating racial discrimination and achieving true equality.
Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU): The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) is a women’s organization founded in 1874 that aimed to promote temperance and the prohibition of alcohol. The WCTU played a crucial role in the broader reform movements during the Gilded Age, advocating for social changes, women's rights, and moral reforms. Its efforts extended beyond temperance to include issues such as suffrage, education, and labor rights, making it a significant force in the fight for social justice.
Women’s Suffrage Movement: The Women’s Suffrage Movement was a social and political campaign aimed at granting women the right to vote, which gained significant momentum in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This movement was part of a larger wave of reform during the Gilded Age, where various groups sought to address social injustices, improve living conditions, and advocate for political rights. Women activists organized conventions, protests, and lobbied for legal changes, which eventually led to the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the right to vote in the United States.
YMCA: The YMCA, or Young Men's Christian Association, is a community-focused organization founded in 1844 that aimed to promote healthy living, social responsibility, and youth development. It played a significant role during the Gilded Age by addressing the needs of urban populations, particularly in areas like recreation and education, while also emphasizing Christian values and moral development.