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AP US History
Unit 6 Overview: The Industrial Revolution (1865-1898)
6.1 Context of Industrialization and the Gilded Age
6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development
6.3 Westward Expansion Social and Cultural Development
6.4 The "New South"
6.5 Technological Innovation
6.6 The Rise of Industrial Capitalism
6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age
6.8 Immigration and Migration
6.9 Responses to Immigration
6.10 Development of the Middle Class
6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age
6.12 Controversies over the Role of Government
6.13 Politics in the Gilded Age
6.14 Continuity and Change in Period 6

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6.10 Development of the Middle Class

Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024

During the Gilded Age (1865-1898), the United States experienced rapid industrialization and economic growth, leading to the development of a new middle class. This middle class was mainly composed of white-collar workers, small business owners, and professionals, who were able to acquire new consumer goods and services through their increased purchasing power. 

The rise of this middle class also led to increased social mobility and the emergence of a new leisure class, who were able to afford new forms of entertainment, such as professional sports and vaudeville shows. Additionally, this period saw the rise of new technologies, such as the telephone and electric lighting, which further improved the standard of living for the middle class.

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Madame CJ Walker, image couresy of Biography.com

Middle-Class Consumerism and Leisure

The expanding middle class of the Gilded Age transformed American society through new patterns of consumption and recreation. As middle-class families gained disposable income beyond basic necessities, they increasingly participated in a growing consumer economy and devoted more time to leisure activities. This shift reflected both economic changes and evolving social values that placed greater emphasis on comfort, entertainment, and the display of social status through purchasing power and leisure pursuits.

Consumer Culture

The rise of the middle class led to the emergence of a consumer culture, as people started to have more disposable income to spend on goods and services. This new consumer culture was fueled by the growth of department stores, mail-order catalogs, and new forms of advertising, which made it easier for people to purchase new consumer goods. 

Additionally, new technologies such as the telephone and electric lighting also contributed to the consumer culture as they made it easier for people to communicate and shop for goods. This period also saw the rise of new forms of entertainment, such as professional sports and vaudeville shows, which further added to the consumer culture. These changes had a significant impact on American society, as people were able to buy new goods and experiences, and enjoy a higher standard of living.

Leisure Time

As people had more disposable income, they were able to afford new forms of entertainment and activities, such as professional sports, vaudeville shows, and amusement parks. Additionally, the rise of new technologies such as the telephone and electric lighting allowed people to spend more time on leisure activities, as they were able to communicate and travel more easily.

The rise of leisure time also led to the development of new forms of leisure activities, such as traveling, reading, and participating in hobbies. This period also saw the rise of new forms of social clubs, such as fraternal organizations, which provided people with opportunities to socialize and engage in leisure activities. This period also saw the rise of a new leisure class, who were able to afford new forms of entertainment and travel, this leisure class had a significant impact on American society as it led to new forms of consumption and ways of life.

Giving Back

As the middle class grew in prosperity during the Gilded Age, many felt a responsibility to address social problems in their communities. Their charitable efforts took three main forms. First, philanthropy directed personal wealth toward causes like education, healthcare, and the arts, with wealthy individuals establishing foundations and making significant donations. Second, volunteerism flourished, particularly among middle-class women who joined organizations like settlement houses to improve conditions for the poor and working class. Third, "scientific charity" emerged as an approach that aimed to address poverty's root causes rather than just providing temporary relief, emphasizing efficiency and long-term solutions to social problems.

Gospel of Wealth

The "Gospel of Wealth" emerged during the Gilded Age as a philosophy that wealthy individuals had a moral duty to use their fortunes for public benefit. Andrew Carnegie, one of America's richest industrialists, popularized this idea in his 1889 essay of the same name.

Carnegie's key principles included:

  • Wealth accumulation was natural but created a responsibility to society
  • The rich should act as stewards rather than owners of their wealth
  • Direct giving to the poor was wasteful and encouraged dependency
  • Strategic philanthropy should create opportunities for self-improvement
  • Money should be distributed during the wealthy person's lifetime

Carnegie practiced what he preached, eventually giving away roughly $350 million (equivalent to billions today) to establish:

  • Over 2,500 public libraries across America
  • Carnegie Mellon University and other educational institutions
  • Carnegie Hall in New York City
  • Various charitable foundations and trusts

The Gospel of Wealth promoted "scientific charity" that addressed poverty's root causes rather than simply providing handouts. This approach helped shift public perception of some wealthy industrialists from "robber barons" to philanthropists, though their business practices often remained controversial.

Gender and Class

Women's Roles in the Workforce

As the corporate economy expanded during the Gilded Age, women entered the workforce in growing numbers, though they faced significant limitations. In factories, women typically worked in gender-segregated positions with lower pay than men, particularly in textile mills and food processing. Middle-class women increasingly found employment as teachers, nurses, and especially as clerical workers in the expanding corporate offices. While these positions offered more respectable employment than factory work, women still encountered strict gender expectations and barriers to advancement.

Managerial Positions

During the Gilded Age, opportunities for women in managerial positions were limited. Women were largely excluded from formal education and professional training, and societal norms and discrimination made it difficult for them to enter and advance in male-dominated fields. However, there were some women who managed to succeed in business and industry, often by starting their own companies or by working their way up the ranks in traditionally female-dominated fields such as textiles and retail.

During the Gilded Age, a few examples of women who were successful in managerial positions include:

  • Madam C. J. Walker: She was an African American entrepreneur, philanthropist, and political and social activist. She is recorded as the first female self-made millionaire in America. She created a line of hair care products for African American women and built a national sales network.
  • Lillian Dickson: She was a businesswoman who managed her family's wholesale grocery business, Dickson, Deuel & Co., which was one of the largest wholesale grocery firms in the United States during the Gilded Age. She served as the company's president and treasurer.
  • Carrie Catt: was an American women's suffrage leader who campaigned for the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which gave women the right to vote in 1920. She was the founder of the League of Women Voters and the National Woman's Party, and served as the president of the National American Woman Suffrage Association.
  • Mary Elizabeth Garrett: She was an American philanthropist and women's suffrage supporter, who was a driving force behind the founding of Bryn Mawr College in 1885 and Johns Hopkins Medical School in 1893.

These examples were a few of the women who managed to succeed in a time when opportunities for women were limited, and their success laid the foundation for future generations of women in leadership positions.

The number of women working in clerical jobs also began to increase. This was partly due to the growth of the service sector and the rise of new forms of business and commerce, which created new job opportunities for women. Additionally, the increasing availability of education and improved social mobility also contributed to the growing number of women working in clerical jobs.

Clerical Jobs

Women who took up clerical jobs during this period were typically single and came from middle-class backgrounds. They were mostly working as stenographers, typists, and bookkeepers. They were often paid less than men for doing the same work and were not considered for promotion as easily. They were also subjected to discrimination and harassment in their workplaces. This period also saw the rise of the "New Woman" movement, which advocated for greater opportunities and rights for women in the workplace and society. This movement helped to challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes and paved the way for greater equality for women in the workplace.

Overall, the Gilded Age saw a growing number of women working in clerical jobs, as new job opportunities and improved social mobility allowed more women to enter the workforce. However, women still faced significant barriers in the workplace, including discrimination and harassment, and were paid less than men for doing the same work.

Key Terms to Review (33)

Advertising: Advertising is the practice of promoting products, services, or ideas through various media channels to attract and engage potential customers. It plays a crucial role in shaping consumer behavior and preferences, influencing social trends, and contributing to economic growth. Advertising has evolved significantly over time, adapting to technological advancements and changes in society's values and norms.
Amusement Parks: Amusement parks are large outdoor entertainment venues that feature a variety of attractions, such as rides, games, and shows, designed to provide fun and enjoyment for visitors. These parks became increasingly popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, reflecting the rise of leisure activities among the growing middle class and the cultural shifts of the 1920s.
Andrew Carnegie: Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist who led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century. His success and wealth epitomized the rise of industrial capitalism, while his later philanthropic efforts reflected the moral dilemmas and social responsibilities associated with immense wealth during a time of significant social change.
Captains of Industry: Captains of Industry refers to powerful business leaders during the late 19th and early 20th centuries who played a significant role in shaping the American economy and society. These individuals were often entrepreneurs who amassed vast fortunes through their innovative practices, such as creating large corporations and improving industrial processes. They are also seen as influential figures who contributed to the development of the middle class by providing jobs, fostering economic growth, and supporting philanthropy.
Carrie Catt: Carrie Catt was a prominent American suffragist and women's rights activist who played a vital role in the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century. She is best known for her leadership of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and for her strategic efforts that ultimately led to the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote. Catt's work helped to elevate women's roles in society and contributed to the development of a more active middle class that included women advocating for their rights.
Clerical Jobs: Clerical jobs refer to occupations involving administrative tasks, such as filing, typing, record keeping, and managing correspondence. These positions became increasingly important during the rise of the middle class, as the growth of businesses and industries created a need for organized office management and efficient communication.
Consumer Culture: Consumer culture refers to a social and economic order that encourages the acquisition of goods and services in ever-increasing amounts. This culture emphasizes the importance of consumer choice and promotes the idea that personal happiness can be achieved through the consumption of material goods, which became especially pronounced during various transformative periods in American history.
Department Stores: Department stores are large retail establishments that offer a wide variety of goods organized into different departments, such as clothing, home goods, electronics, and more. These stores emerged in the 19th century and became significant symbols of the growing consumer culture, reflecting changes in shopping habits and the rise of the middle class.
Electric Lighting: Electric lighting refers to the use of electric energy to illuminate spaces, revolutionizing how people experienced their environments during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This technology not only transformed homes and streets but also played a significant role in the growth of urban centers and the middle class, as well as influencing social dynamics and political landscapes during the Gilded Age.
Fraternal Organizations: Fraternal organizations are voluntary associations formed for mutual benefit, typically characterized by shared interests, social activities, and a commitment to community service. These groups often provide members with social support, networking opportunities, and a sense of belonging, playing a significant role in shaping the social fabric of the emerging middle class during the period of economic growth and social change.
Gilded Age: The Gilded Age refers to the period in American history from the 1870s to about 1900, characterized by rapid economic growth, industrialization, and significant social changes, all cloaked in a superficial layer of prosperity that masked underlying issues such as political corruption, economic inequality, and social strife. This era saw the emergence of a wealthy elite and a growing middle class, while also witnessing major conflicts over labor rights, immigration policies, and government roles.
Gospel of Wealth: The Gospel of Wealth is a philosophy proposed by Andrew Carnegie that advocates the responsibility of the wealthy to use their fortunes for the greater good of society. This idea emerged during the late 19th century, when industrial capitalism was rapidly expanding and creating a significant gap between the rich and the poor. Carnegie believed that those who amassed great wealth had an obligation to promote social welfare and contribute to public causes, thus shaping the ethical considerations around philanthropy in a time of rising middle class aspirations and economic inequality.
Leisure Time: Leisure time refers to the hours when individuals are free from work or duties and can engage in activities of their choice for relaxation, enjoyment, or personal growth. As the middle class emerged, their increased disposable income and shorter work hours allowed more people to experience leisure time, fostering a cultural shift towards recreational activities and entertainment options.
Leisure Class: The Leisure Class refers to a social class that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by individuals who could afford to live without engaging in productive labor, often focusing instead on consumption, leisure activities, and the display of wealth. This class is often associated with the cultural shifts and economic changes that arose from industrialization and urbanization, reflecting broader societal changes in the perception of wealth and status.
Lillian Dickson: Lillian Dickson was an influential figure in the development of the middle class during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, known for her work as a social reformer and advocate for women's rights. Her efforts contributed to the transformation of social norms, particularly regarding women's roles in society and their access to education and employment. Through her activism, she helped shape the aspirations and opportunities available to women, which played a crucial role in the broader emergence of a middle-class identity.
Madam C. J. Walker: Madam C. J. Walker was an African American entrepreneur and philanthropist, best known for creating a successful line of beauty and haircare products specifically for Black women in the early 20th century. Her innovative business model and marketing strategies not only made her one of the first self-made female millionaires in the United States but also helped to empower a generation of Black women, contributing to the rise of a middle class within the African American community during this era.
Mail-Order Catalogs: Mail-order catalogs are printed or digital publications that list products available for sale, allowing customers to purchase items through the mail or online. These catalogs played a crucial role in shaping consumer culture and significantly contributed to the growth of the middle class by providing access to goods that were previously only available in urban centers or specialty stores.
Managerial Positions: Managerial positions refer to roles within an organization that are responsible for overseeing and directing the activities of employees to achieve specific goals and objectives. These positions emerged during the growth of the middle class, as new economic opportunities and corporate structures required skilled individuals to manage teams, resources, and operations effectively.
Mary Elizabeth Garrett: Mary Elizabeth Garrett was a prominent American philanthropist and advocate for women's education in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. She played a crucial role in establishing women's medical education and was instrumental in founding the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, which accepted female students at a time when women were largely excluded from medical professions. Her efforts reflect the broader push for gender equality and the development of the middle class, as educated women began to seek professional careers.
Middle Class: The middle class refers to a social class between the upper class and working class, characterized by moderate income, educational attainment, and occupational status. This group emerged significantly during economic transformations, influencing societal values, consumer habits, and political landscapes.
New Woman Movement: The New Woman Movement refers to a feminist cultural and social movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for women's rights, independence, and a redefinition of women's roles in society. This movement coincided with the development of the middle class, as many women began to seek greater education, employment opportunities, and political rights, challenging traditional gender norms and expectations.
Philanthropy: Philanthropy refers to the act of promoting the welfare of others, typically through the donation of money, resources, or time to charitable causes. This practice has played a significant role in the development of the middle class, as individuals within this economic group often engaged in charitable giving to support various social initiatives, reflecting their growing wealth and influence in society.
Professionals: Professionals are individuals who possess specialized knowledge and skills in a specific field, often requiring formal education and training. In the context of the development of the middle class, professionals played a crucial role in shaping economic, social, and cultural dynamics as they emerged as a distinct social group, contributing to the rise of a more educated and economically independent populace.
Professional Sports: Professional sports refers to organized athletic competitions where participants are paid for their performances, often involving leagues, franchises, and large-scale events. This concept connects closely with the rise of the middle class, as the growing leisure time and disposable income among this demographic led to increased attendance at games and the emergence of sports as a major entertainment industry.
Scientific Charity: Scientific Charity refers to a movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries aimed at applying systematic and scientific principles to charitable work. This approach sought to improve the effectiveness of social services and philanthropy by relying on data, research, and analysis to better understand the needs of the poor and to provide more efficient assistance. It emerged as the middle class began to recognize their social responsibilities and seek practical solutions to poverty and social issues.
Settlement Houses: Settlement houses were community centers established in urban areas during the late 19th and early 20th centuries to provide social services, education, and support to immigrant families and the poor. They played a vital role in the integration of immigrants into American society, addressing issues like poverty, education, and labor rights, and promoting social reform.
Small Business Owners: Small business owners are individuals who own and operate small enterprises, which are typically defined by their limited size, revenue, and number of employees. These entrepreneurs play a critical role in the economy, contributing to job creation, innovation, and the growth of the middle class, as they often embody the entrepreneurial spirit that drives economic dynamism.
Social Clubs: Social clubs are organized groups that bring together individuals with common interests for socializing, networking, and recreation. During the rise of the middle class, these clubs became essential spaces for fostering community ties, cultural exchange, and social engagement among members, reflecting the changing dynamics of society in this period.
Telephone: The telephone is a communication device that converts sound into electrical signals and transmits them over distances, revolutionizing the way people connect with one another. This invention played a crucial role in transforming society by enabling instant communication, which contributed to the growth of businesses, the development of the middle class, and the rise of industrial capitalism, creating new economic opportunities and altering social interactions.
Vaudeville Shows: Vaudeville shows were a popular form of theatrical variety entertainment in the United States from the late 19th century into the early 20th century, featuring a diverse lineup of performances including music, comedy, dance, and acts by magicians and acrobats. These shows played a significant role in reflecting and shaping the cultural landscape of a growing middle class, providing accessible entertainment that appealed to a wide audience.
Volunteerism: Volunteerism is the practice of individuals offering their time and services to help others or contribute to community improvement without expecting monetary compensation. This concept gained prominence during periods of economic hardship, where individuals took initiative to support their communities through selfless acts, fostering a sense of civic responsibility and community engagement.
White-Collar Workers: White-collar workers are individuals employed in office environments, typically performing tasks related to management, administration, or professional services. This category of workers emerged prominently during the 20th century, symbolizing a shift from manual labor jobs to jobs that require specialized knowledge and skills, and played a crucial role in the growth of the middle class.
Women's Roles in the Workforce: Women's roles in the workforce refer to the participation of women in various types of employment and economic activities, which evolved significantly over time, particularly during the development of the middle class. As industrialization progressed, many women began to seek paid employment outside the home, contributing to family incomes and reshaping societal expectations regarding gender roles. This shift marked a transition from traditional domestic roles towards a more complex view of women's contributions to economic life.
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6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age