AP US History
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Table of Contents
The Idea of the "New South"
After the Civil War and Reconstruction ended, some Southern leaders pushed for a more modern South with new industries, while still keeping many of the old social structures in place. They wanted to rebuild the Southern economy in a new way.
- People Who Promoted the "New South":
- Henry Grady (newspaper editor in Atlanta) urged the South to develop different types of businesses
- Called for more factories and less farming
- Tried to get Northern businesses to invest money in the South
- Wanted better railroads and transportation
- Some Industrial Growth:
- Textile factories grew in the Carolinas and Georgia
- Birmingham, Alabama became known for iron and steel production
- Richmond, Virginia processed a lot of tobacco
- New railroads connected Southern cities and resources
- Cities grew around these new industries
- Problems That Held the South Back:
- Not enough money for investment
- Poor education system
- Many people wanted to stick with farming traditions
- Racial divisions limited opportunities for many workers
- High poverty rates throughout the region
Farming Remained the Main Economic Activity
Despite talk about a "New South" and some factory growth, most Southerners still worked in agriculture. The plantation system with slavery was replaced by new work arrangements that still gave white landowners control while offering limited freedom to former slaves.
- Sharecropping System:
- Workers farmed someone else's land and paid with a share of crops (usually 1/3 to 1/2)
- Landowner provided land, tools, seed, and housing
- Sharecroppers received no wages, just part of what they grew
- System trapped workers in a cycle of debt and poverty
- Both Black and poor white farmers became sharecroppers
- Tenant Farming:
- Farmers rented land for a fixed payment (cash or portion of crop)
- Slightly more independence than sharecropping
- Tenants usually provided their own tools and supplies
- Still created dependency on landowners
- Hard to save enough money to buy land
- Crop Lien System:
- Store owners gave credit for supplies against future harvest
- Charged very high interest rates (often 25% or more)
- Required farmers to grow cash crops (especially cotton) instead of food
- Created debts that were nearly impossible to pay off
- Forced reliance on growing cotton even as prices fell
- Results of These Systems:
- Too much dependence on cotton
- Soil became poor from growing the same crop every year
- Farmers suffered when crop prices dropped
- Widespread poverty in rural areas
- Very difficult for most farmers to improve their situation
Racial Segregation and Discrimination
As Reconstruction ended, African Americans lost many civil rights through both legal measures and violence. A system of racial separation called "Jim Crow" spread across the South, backed by Supreme Court decisions.
- Legal Segregation Development:
- State laws required racial separation in public places
- "Separate but equal" became the accepted practice
- Segregation in schools, transportation, restaurants, theaters, and public spaces
- Marriage between races was prohibited
- Separation extended to churches, hospitals, cemeteries, and neighborhoods
- Supreme Court Decisions:
- Civil Rights Cases (1883):
- Struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875
- Limited federal protection against discrimination by private businesses
- Said only government discrimination was prohibited
- Plessy v. Ferguson (1896):
- Approved "separate but equal" facilities
- Said segregated facilities were constitutional if "equal"
- Only one justice disagreed, saying the Constitution should be "color-blind"
- Made Jim Crow segregation legal for decades
- Not overturned until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954
- Civil Rights Cases (1883):
- Ways to Prevent Black Voting:
- Literacy Tests: Required voters to read and interpret difficult texts
- Poll Taxes: Required payment to vote, making it impossible for poor citizens
- Grandfather Clauses: Only allowed voting if your grandfather could vote
- White Primaries: Kept Black voters out of Democratic Party elections
- Violence and Threats: Scared people who tried to register or vote
- Racial Violence:
- Lynchings used to terrorize Black communities
- Ku Klux Klan and similar groups became active again
- Violent attacks on Black neighborhoods
- Little legal protection or justice for victims
- Public violence used to enforce racial control
African American Responses and Resistance
Despite increasing discrimination and violence, African Americans continued to fight for their rights and build their own community organizations. Black leaders developed different strategies for advancing civil rights.
- Community Building:
- Black churches became centers of community life
- Creation of Black colleges and schools
- Development of African American businesses and newspapers
- Self-help organizations and social groups
- Economic cooperatives to support community needs
- Different Leadership Approaches:
- Booker T. Washington:
- Founded Tuskegee Institute
- Promoted vocational training and economic self-improvement
- In his Atlanta Compromise speech (1895), accepted temporary segregation
- Believed in gradual progress through economic advancement
- Worked with white donors and powerful figures
- W.E.B. Du Bois:
- First African American to earn Harvard Ph.D.
- Criticized Washington's approach as too accepting of discrimination
- Demanded immediate political and civil rights
- Supported liberal arts education and developing Black leadership
- Later helped found the NAACP (1909)
- Ida B. Wells:
- Journalist who documented lynchings
- Led international campaign against lynching
- Pushed for federal anti-lynching laws
- Supported self-defense when necessary
- Helped found National Association of Colored Women
- Booker T. Washington:
The Legacy of the "New South"
The "New South" period was a time of both change and continuity in the South. While some areas saw new industries develop, most of the region remained focused on farming, with widespread poverty. Legal segregation and voting restrictions created a rigid racial system that would last well into the 20th century. Despite these massive challenges, African American communities showed incredible strength by building their own institutions and continuing to resist oppression. The contradictions of the "New South" – trying to modernize while holding onto old racial hierarchies – created patterns that would shape the South for generations to come.
Key Terms to Review (23)
Atlanta Constitution: The Atlanta Constitution was a prominent newspaper founded in 1868 in Atlanta, Georgia, which played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and discourse during the period known as the 'New South.' The paper was influential in promoting the idea of economic modernization and social reform in the post-Civil War South, often advocating for the rights of African Americans while also reflecting the complexities of Southern identity during this transformative era.
Booker T. Washington: Booker T. Washington was a prominent African American educator, author, and leader in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who advocated for the vocational education of Black Americans as a means to achieve economic independence and social progress. His philosophy emphasized self-help and gradualism, encouraging African Americans to focus on practical skills and economic self-sufficiency in a racially segregated society.
Civil Rights Cases of 1883: The Civil Rights Cases of 1883 were a group of five legal cases consolidated by the Supreme Court that addressed the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. This Act aimed to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, but the Supreme Court ruled that Congress did not have the authority to regulate private acts of discrimination, effectively undermining the protections for African Americans during the New South era. This ruling contributed to the establishment of Jim Crow laws and marked a significant setback for civil rights advancements following Reconstruction.
Fourteenth Amendment: The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified in 1868, is a crucial part of the U.S. Constitution that grants citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States and ensures equal protection under the law. This amendment was designed to protect the rights of former slaves after the Civil War and has had a lasting impact on civil rights and liberties in America.
Grandfather Clauses: Grandfather clauses were legal provisions that allowed individuals to bypass certain restrictions based on their ancestors' voting status prior to the implementation of new laws. These clauses were often used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to disenfranchise African American voters while allowing white voters to retain their voting rights, reflecting the racial inequalities and injustices that persisted after the end of Reconstruction.
Henry Grady: Henry Grady was a prominent journalist and orator in the late 19th century who advocated for the 'New South' movement, which aimed to promote economic modernization and industrialization in the Southern United States after the Civil War. He is best known for his role as the editor of the Atlanta Constitution, where he championed the idea of a South that moved beyond its agrarian roots, embracing new industries and economic opportunities. Grady's vision included increased investment in railroads, manufacturing, and education, which he believed would help elevate the South's economic status in relation to the North.
Ida B. Wells: Ida B. Wells was an influential African American journalist, educator, and civil rights activist, known for her pioneering work in anti-lynching campaigns and her advocacy for racial justice. She played a significant role in the early civil rights movement by documenting and exposing the widespread practice of lynching in the United States, particularly in the South, during a time of intense racial violence and discrimination.
Industrialization: Industrialization refers to the process of transforming an economy from primarily agricultural to one based on the manufacturing of goods, involving the use of machinery and factory systems. This shift had profound impacts on social structures, labor dynamics, and economic practices, especially during periods of significant growth and change.
Jim Crow Era: The Jim Crow Era refers to the period from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century in the United States, characterized by laws and social customs that enforced racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. This era was marked by systematic oppression and disenfranchisement, deeply impacting the social, political, and economic landscape of the South and beyond, creating lasting challenges that resonate even today.
KKK (Ku Klux Klan): The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) is a white supremacist hate group that emerged in the United States after the Civil War, specifically during the Reconstruction era. This organization aimed to maintain white dominance through acts of terror and intimidation against African Americans and their allies. The Klan's activities contributed to the establishment of a racially segregated society in the 'New South', highlighting the resistance to civil rights and social equality for freed slaves.
Literacy Tests: Literacy tests were legal obstacles implemented in the United States, primarily in the South, aimed at disenfranchising African American voters and, in some cases, poor white voters. These tests were often designed to be confusing and difficult, serving as a means to maintain white supremacy and control over the political process during and after Reconstruction, through the era of the New South and into the Civil Rights Movement.
Lost Cause: The Lost Cause is a historical narrative that arose in the post-Civil War South, portraying the Confederacy's fight as noble and just while downplaying the role of slavery as a central issue of the Civil War. This ideology seeks to romanticize the Confederacy and its leaders, presenting them as heroic figures defending their homeland against overwhelming odds. It also emphasizes themes of Southern honor and valor, shaping the collective memory of the Civil War and its aftermath in the Southern United States.
Lynching: Lynching refers to the extrajudicial killing of individuals, typically carried out by a mob, often in public displays intended to intimidate and control specific groups. In the context of the New South, lynching became a brutal tool used to enforce racial hierarchy and maintain white supremacy after the Civil War, particularly against African Americans who were seen as threats to the social order.
Old South: The Old South refers to the cultural, social, and economic systems of the Southern United States before the Civil War, primarily characterized by an agrarian economy based on plantation agriculture and slavery. This region was defined by a distinct way of life that included a hierarchy of wealth and race, where wealthy plantation owners held significant power and influence, creating a rigid class structure and a unique Southern identity that persisted even after the war.
Plessy v. Ferguson: Plessy v. Ferguson was a landmark Supreme Court case decided in 1896 that upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of 'separate but equal.' This ruling solidified Jim Crow laws in the South and allowed for the continued discrimination against African Americans, shaping the legal landscape of racial relations for decades.
Poll Taxes: Poll taxes were fees required to be paid in order to vote, often used as a tool to disenfranchise low-income individuals, particularly African Americans and poor whites in the South. These taxes emerged after Reconstruction as a means to maintain white supremacy and limit the political power of newly freed slaves. By imposing financial barriers, poll taxes became a significant part of the systematic efforts to undermine the rights gained during the Reconstruction era and shaped the political landscape of the New South.
Racial Segregation: Racial segregation is the systematic separation of individuals based on their race, leading to unequal access to resources, opportunities, and rights. This practice was legally enforced in many parts of the United States, particularly in the South, and was a significant factor in the social and political dynamics throughout American history, impacting various movements and cultural shifts.
Sharecropping: Sharecropping was an agricultural system that emerged in the South after the Civil War, where landowners allowed tenants to use their land in exchange for a share of the crops produced. This system became a means of economic survival for many freed African Americans and poor whites, but it often trapped them in cycles of debt and poverty, influencing the social and economic landscape of the post-war South.
Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in the United States, responsible for interpreting the Constitution and federal law. It plays a crucial role in shaping legal precedents and can influence various aspects of American life, including civil rights, federal power, and social policies.
Tenant Farming: Tenant farming is an agricultural system where individuals rent land to cultivate crops, rather than owning the land themselves. This practice became prevalent in the South after the Civil War, as newly freed African Americans and poor whites sought opportunities to earn a living through agriculture, despite facing economic and social challenges. Tenant farming often involved a sharecropping arrangement, where tenants would give a portion of their crops to the landowners in exchange for land use and supplies.
Voter Suppression: Voter suppression refers to various strategies and tactics aimed at discouraging or preventing specific groups of people from exercising their right to vote. This phenomenon is often used to maintain political power and can involve legal and illegal methods, such as strict voter ID laws, purging voter rolls, and limiting access to polling places. In the context of the New South, voter suppression was particularly significant as it targeted African American voters and poor white voters following the Civil War.
W.E.B. DuBois: W.E.B. DuBois was an influential African American scholar, civil rights activist, and co-founder of the NAACP, known for his advocacy for equal rights and higher education for African Americans. His ideas contrasted sharply with those of Booker T. Washington, emphasizing the need for political action and civil rights as essential to combating racial discrimination and achieving true equality.
White Primaries: White Primaries were elections held in the Southern United States that effectively excluded Black voters from participating in the primary elections of the Democratic Party. These primaries became a tool for maintaining white supremacy and control over political power in the post-Reconstruction era, particularly during the 'New South' period, when Southern states implemented various strategies to disenfranchise African Americans and preserve a racially segregated political system.