AP European History
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7.2 Nationalism
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Development and Spread of Nationalism
Nationalism emerged in Europe as a response to the political upheavals and challenges of the early 19th century. The influence of Napoleon’s Continental System played a major role in sparking nationalist sentiments across Europe. Napoleon's efforts to unify France and impose his will on other European countries led to a rise in national identity and resistance movements.
- Napoleon’s Nationalist Policies: In an attempt to consolidate power and control, Napoleon introduced policies like a common legal code (Napoleonic Code), a unified state language, and national symbols like the tricolor flag. These efforts helped foster a sense of French identity and loyalty to the state.
- European Reactions to Napoleon: As Napoleon’s empire expanded, European nations reacted by strengthening their own national identities.
- Britain: Focused on economic production to counter French influence rather than revolutionary action.
- Spain: Fought against French rule, rejecting Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte as king.
- Russia: Mounted a successful defense against Napoleon’s invasion, further fostering Russian nationalism.
Some of the most prominent nationalists in this period included Johann Gottlieb Fichte, The Grimm Brothers, Giuseppe Mazzini, and the Pan-Slavists.
Effects of Nationalism
Nationalism spread through Europe in various forms and created both unity and division. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation through different channels, including romantic idealism, liberal reforms, political unification, and the promotion of racialism and anti-Semitism.
Romantic Nationalism and Racialism
- Romantic Nationalism: Focused on the emotional and cultural bonds that tied people together, such as shared language, folklore, and history.
- Racialism and Chauvinism: Nationalists also promoted ideas of racial superiority, which often justified the exclusion or persecution of minority groups.
Rise of Anti-Semitism
Nationalism, particularly in the 19th century, often involved the exclusion of certain groups, with Jews being a major target.
- Anti-Semitism: Jews were frequently seen as outsiders in European society due to their different heritage and religion. Nationalist movements that focused on ethnic and cultural unity often marginalized or persecuted Jewish communities.
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The Dreyfus Affair: A political scandal in France that exposed deep-rooted anti-Semitism. Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French Army, was wrongfully convicted of treason in 1894, sparking a nationwide debate over his innocence and highlighting the pervasive anti-Semitic sentiments in French society.
Zionism: A Response to Anti-Semitism
- Zionism: In response to growing anti-Semitism, particularly in Eastern and Western Europe, the movement of Zionism emerged. Led by thinkers like Theodor Herzl, Zionism called for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine to provide Jews with a place where they could freely practice their religion and culture.
Independence Movements
Nationalism also played a key role in the wave of independence movements across Europe during the 19th century.
- Greek Independence (1821): The Greeks, with support from European powers, successfully gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, marking a significant blow to Ottoman control in Europe.
- Serbian Independence (1830): Similarly, the Serbs fought to gain independence from the Ottomans, which further weakened Ottoman influence in the Balkans.
- Belgian Independence (1830): Belgium broke away from the Netherlands and established itself as a sovereign state.
The Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848 were a wave of uprisings and political unrest across Europe, driven by nationalist and liberal ideals. These revolutions were largely organized by the bourgeoisie, with the support of the lower classes, who sought to remove oppressive monarchies and demand political and social reforms.
- Enlightenment Ideas: The spread of Enlightenment ideals, including constitutionalism, individual freedoms, and national sovereignty, influenced many of the revolutionaries.
- Outcome: Though many of the revolutions were initially suppressed, they marked the end of the Concert of Europe and forced many European governments to consider reforms.
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary
The rise of nationalism in the mid-19th century posed a significant challenge to empires with diverse ethnic populations, particularly the Austrian Empire.
- The October Diploma (1860): To address the growing nationalism in the empire, Emperor Francis Joseph attempted to divide the Austrian Empire into provinces that would form a federation. This move was largely ineffective, particularly with the Hungarian desire for independence.
- The Compromise of 1867: To appease Hungarian nationalists, the Compromise of 1867 created the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy, which established two separate parliaments and economies for Austria and Hungary, but with the same ruler—the Habsburg emperor. This was an attempt to stabilize the empire by accommodating nationalist desires.
Nationalism and New Alliances
Nationalism not only led to the creation of new nation-states but also to the formation of alliances that would play a critical role in shaping European diplomacy and conflicts.
- The Triple Alliance: Established between Germany, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire in the late 19th century, this alliance was a response to growing tensions in Europe and competition among the Great Powers.
- The Triple Entente: In opposition to the Triple Alliance, the Triple Entente formed between Russia, France, and Great Britain, solidifying the divisions that would later contribute to World War I.
Conclusion
Nationalism profoundly reshaped the political landscape of Europe from 1815 to 1914. It encouraged the formation of new nation-states, such as Italy and Germany, and spurred independence movements in areas like Greece and Serbia. Nationalist movements also fostered anti-Semitism, which led to the rise of Zionism as a response. Additionally, the creation of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy was an attempt to stabilize a diverse empire amidst rising nationalist sentiments. Ultimately, the spread of nationalism and the creation of new alliances set the stage for the tensions that would lead to World War I.
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Key Terms to Review (28)
Alliances: Alliances are formal agreements between two or more nations to cooperate for specific purposes, often related to defense, trade, or political interests. These agreements can influence power dynamics, national strategies, and lead to collective security arrangements that impact the international landscape.
Captain Alfred Dreyfus: Captain Alfred Dreyfus was a Jewish French army officer whose wrongful conviction for treason in 1894 sparked a major political scandal in France known as the Dreyfus Affair. This case exposed deep-seated anti-Semitism within French society and the military, and highlighted issues related to nationalism, identity, and the fight for justice, becoming a pivotal moment in the history of French politics and Jewish rights.
Compromise of 1867: The Compromise of 1867, also known as the Ausgleich, was an agreement that established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, granting Hungary equal status with Austria in terms of governance. This arrangement was a significant response to rising nationalist sentiments within the empire, as various ethnic groups sought greater autonomy and recognition. By balancing the power between the Austrian and Hungarian regions, this compromise aimed to stabilize the political landscape and address diplomatic tensions arising from nationalist movements across Europe.
Continental System: The Continental System was an economic blockade imposed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806 aimed at weakening Great Britain by prohibiting European nations from trading with them. This policy was part of Napoleon's broader strategy to establish French dominance in Europe and promote nationalism among his allies while undermining British economic power. However, it ultimately faced challenges as countries resisted compliance, leading to widespread smuggling and dissatisfaction.
Development and Spread of Nationalism: The development and spread of nationalism refers to the rise of a political ideology that emphasizes the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation or group. This movement began to gain momentum in the late 18th century and became a significant force in shaping modern Europe, influencing revolutions, wars, and the formation of nation-states. Nationalism often emerged in response to imperial rule, fostering a sense of unity among people with shared language, culture, or historical experiences.
Devil's Island: Devil's Island was a notorious penal colony located off the coast of French Guiana, primarily used during the late 19th and early 20th centuries for the imprisonment of political prisoners and criminals. Its infamous reputation stemmed from the brutal conditions and harsh treatment of inmates, making it a symbol of France's colonial ambitions and the darker side of nationalism during that era.
Dreyfus Affair: The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal in France that involved the wrongful conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French Army, for treason in 1894. This event became a focal point for the debate over anti-Semitism, nationalism, and civil rights in France, highlighting deep divisions within French society and influencing the rise of Zionism.
Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary: The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was a political structure established in 1867 that created a dual system of governance, where the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary were united under a single monarch, yet maintained distinct administrative systems. This arrangement was a response to rising nationalist sentiments within the empire and aimed to balance the demands for autonomy among various ethnic groups while keeping the empire intact.
Effects of Nationalism: The effects of nationalism refer to the political, social, and cultural impacts that arise from the collective identity and aspirations of a nation or group of people. Nationalism can lead to increased unity and pride within a nation, but it can also result in conflicts, exclusion, and the suppression of minority groups as individuals prioritize national identity over others. Understanding these effects is crucial in analyzing historical movements and conflicts influenced by nationalist sentiments.
Francis Joseph: Francis Joseph was the Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary from 1848 until his death in 1916. His reign was marked by significant political and social changes within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, particularly in relation to the rise of nationalism and ethnic tensions among its diverse populations.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist who played a crucial role in the movement for Italian unification in the 19th century. He was a key proponent of nationalism, advocating for a unified Italy based on democratic principles and the idea of a nation-state. Mazzini's vision inspired many nationalistic movements across Europe, emphasizing the importance of national identity and self-determination.
Grimm Brothers: The Grimm Brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm, were German scholars and folklorists best known for their collection of folk tales and fairy stories in the 19th century. Their work contributed to the rise of nationalism in Germany by emphasizing the importance of German folklore and cultural heritage, which helped foster a sense of national identity among the German people during a time of political fragmentation.
Hapsburgs: The Hapsburgs were one of the most prominent and influential royal families in European history, originating in the 13th century and ruling over vast territories across Europe. Their extensive dynastic marriages and strategic alliances allowed them to maintain power and influence in various regions, including Austria, Spain, and parts of Italy and the Low Countries, particularly during the height of their power in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Hapsburgs became closely tied to the rise of nationalism as their multi-ethnic empire faced challenges from emerging national identities.
Independence Movements: Independence movements are political and social campaigns by a group or nation seeking to achieve self-governance and sovereignty, often in response to colonial or imperial rule. These movements are driven by the desire for national identity, self-determination, and freedom from foreign domination, reflecting the rise of nationalism. The success of these movements often leads to the establishment of new nations or the reconfiguration of existing political structures.
J. G. Fichte: Johann Gottlieb Fichte was a German philosopher known for his contributions to idealism and nationalism, particularly through his ideas about the self and the nation. He emphasized the importance of a unified national identity and the role of culture in shaping that identity, linking philosophy with emerging nationalist sentiments in early 19th-century Europe.
Liberal Reform: Liberal Reform refers to a series of political, social, and economic changes aimed at promoting individual freedoms, civil rights, and democratic governance. This movement often emerged in response to the conservative regimes that dominated Europe in the early 19th century, advocating for constitutional government, the rule of law, and protection of personal liberties. Liberal Reform was crucial in shaping nationalist movements as it often aligned with the aspirations of various ethnic groups seeking self-determination and a voice in their governance.
Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, ultimately becoming a key figure in European history. His ambitious campaigns spread revolutionary ideals across Europe, which fueled the growth of nationalism while simultaneously leading to significant reforms within France and the reshaping of the continent's political landscape.
October Diploma: The October Diploma was an important constitutional document issued by the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I in 1860, aimed at addressing the growing nationalist movements within the Austrian Empire. This document proposed a federal system of governance that sought to grant greater autonomy to various ethnic groups, reflecting the empire's diverse nationalities and their aspirations for self-governance. It was part of the broader struggle between central authority and the demands for national identity during a time of rising nationalism across Europe.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a powerful Islamic state that lasted from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, covering parts of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. It was known for its vast territorial reach and cultural diversity, significantly influencing European politics and society during its height.
Pan-Slavists: Pan-Slavists were advocates of a political and cultural movement aimed at unifying all Slavic peoples, emphasizing shared linguistic, cultural, and historical ties. This movement emerged in the 19th century, rooted in the rise of nationalism and the desire for self-determination among Slavic groups across Europe, particularly in response to foreign domination and influence.
Political Unification: Political unification is the process of bringing together distinct political entities into a single, cohesive government or state. This term is closely associated with the rise of nationalism, where shared cultural, historical, or ethnic identities motivate groups to unify, often in response to external pressures or conflicts. It plays a critical role in shaping modern nation-states, especially during periods marked by diplomatic tensions and the struggle for national identity.
Racialism with Anti-Semitism: Racialism with Anti-Semitism refers to the belief in the superiority of certain races over others, particularly manifesting in hostility and discrimination against Jewish people. This ideology connects deeply with nationalist sentiments, as it often underpins exclusionary policies and social attitudes that target minorities, reflecting a broader trend of racial purity and national identity in various European contexts.
Revolutions of 1848: The Revolutions of 1848 were a series of interconnected uprisings across Europe, fueled by demands for political reform, national independence, and social change. These revolutions emerged in response to the widespread discontent with conservative rule following the Congress of Vienna and were driven by various social groups, including the middle class, workers, and nationalists seeking greater representation and rights.
Rise in Anti-Semitism: The rise in anti-Semitism refers to the increasing hostility, discrimination, and violence directed towards Jewish people throughout history, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries. This phenomenon is often fueled by nationalist movements that sought to unify a population around a common identity, which frequently scapegoated minorities, including Jews, as outsiders or threats to national unity. As nationalism grew stronger, so too did the fervor of anti-Semitic sentiments, leading to widespread prejudice and persecution.
Romantic Idealism: Romantic Idealism is a cultural and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature. This movement arose as a reaction against the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the industrial revolution, advocating for a deeper connection to one's feelings, cultural heritage, and the natural world. In the context of nationalism, Romantic Idealism played a critical role in shaping national identities and movements by inspiring people to embrace their unique histories and traditions.
Theodor Herzl: Theodor Herzl was an Austrian journalist and the founder of modern political Zionism, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish state in response to growing anti-Semitism in Europe. His efforts played a pivotal role in the rise of nationalism among Jewish communities, as he promoted the idea that Jews should have their own nation to ensure their safety and identity.
Tricolor Flag: The Tricolor Flag is a national flag that consists of three vertical bands of color, typically representing specific values or ideals. In the context of nationalism, it symbolizes unity, liberty, and equality, often reflecting the principles of the French Revolution. The design has influenced various national flags and movements around the world, serving as a powerful emblem of national identity and collective aspiration.
Zionism: Zionism is a nationalist movement that originated in the late 19th century, advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This movement arose in response to widespread anti-Semitism in Europe and sought to promote Jewish self-determination and national identity, ultimately leading to the founding of the State of Israel in 1948. Zionism played a crucial role in shaping Jewish identity and mobilizing support for Jewish immigration to Palestine.