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Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments
7.1 Context of 19th Century Politics
7.2 Nationalism
7.3 National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions
7.4 Darwinism and Social Darwinism
7.5 The Age of Progress and Modernity
7.6 New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods
7.7 Imperialism’s Global Effects
7.8 19th-Century Culture and Arts
7.9 Causation in 19th Century Perspectives and Political Developments

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7.8 19th-Century Culture and Arts

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The 19th century saw dramatic shifts in European culture, particularly within the realm of the arts. With the backdrop of political upheaval, industrialization, and social change, artistic movements such as Romanticism, Realism, and Modernism emerged, each breaking away from traditional norms and responding to the changing world. This guide will focus on these movements, comparing them with earlier art periods, and explore how they contributed to the evolution of artistic expression from 1815 to 1914.

Comparison of Art Movements (Renaissance to 19th Century)

PeriodKey FeaturesNotable Artists

| Renaissance | Revival of classical antiquity, humanism, and realistic perspectives. | Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael | | Mannerism | Elongated figures, exaggerated proportions, emotional tension, and instability. | El Greco, Parmigianino | | Baroque | Dramatic use of light and shadow, emotion, grandeur, and movement. | Caravaggio, Rembrandt, Peter Paul Rubens | | Neoclassicism | Return to classical forms and rationality, emphasizing order and idealized beauty. | Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres | | Romanticism | Emphasis on emotion, intuition, the sublime, and nature; reaction against rationalism. | Francisco Goya, Caspar David Friedrich, Eugene Delacroix | | Realism | Focus on ordinary people and social issues, rejecting idealization of subjects. | Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier | | Modernism | Movement towards abstraction, subjectivity, and self-expression, including movements like Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, and Cubism. | Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso, Paul Cézanne, Georges Seurat |

Key Art Movements (1815-1914)

Romanticism

Romanticism was a reaction against the Neoclassical emphasis on order and reason. It placed a premium on emotion, intuition, and individual expression. Artists of this movement sought to capture the sublime and the mysterious, often exploring themes like the supernatural, nature’s power, and national histories.

  • Characteristics: Emphasis on emotion, nature, individualism, the sublime, and nationalistic themes.
  • Notable Artists:
    • Francisco Goya - Pinturas Negras (Black Paintings)
  • Caspar David Friedrich - Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog
  • Eugène Delacroix - Liberty Leading the People

Romantic writers like Victor Hugo and William Wordsworth similarly delved into themes of nature, emotion, and revolution, often reacting to the rapid changes of the Industrial Revolution.

Realism

In response to the idealization of the Romantic period, Realism sought to depict everyday life and social issues with accuracy and objectivity. Realist artists focused on the lives of ordinary people, particularly the lower classes, and were influenced by the political upheavals of the time.

  • Characteristics: Depiction of everyday life, attention to social issues, rejection of idealization.
  • Notable Artists:
    • Gustave Courbet - The Stone Breakers
    • Jean-François Millet - The Gleaners
    • Honoré Daumier - The Third-Class Carriage

Realist art often aimed to highlight the struggles of the working class and bring attention to issues such as industrialization, poverty, and inequality.

Modernism and Its Variants

Modernism marked a significant shift away from traditional artistic forms. It embraced abstraction, subjectivity, and self-expression, leading to movements such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Pointillism, and Cubism.

Impressionism

Impressionism broke from traditional artistic techniques, focusing on the fleeting effects of light, color, and movement. Impressionists painted en plein air (outdoors) to capture the momentary experiences of daily life, rather than depicting subjects with high detail.

  • Characteristics: Loose brushstrokes, emphasis on light and color, capturing fleeting moments.
  • Notable Artists:
    • Claude Monet - Impression, Sunrise
    • Edgar Degas - Ballet Rehearsal
    • Pierre-Auguste Renoir - Luncheon of the Boating Party

Impressionists were particularly interested in depicting leisure activities and scenes from modern urban life, often focusing on the middle class.

Post-Impressionism

Post-Impressionism extended the techniques of Impressionism but sought to explore more personal expression and structure. Post-Impressionist artists focused on using color and form to evoke emotions, rather than purely depicting light and color effects.

  • Characteristics: Greater focus on structure, emotion, and symbolic content.
  • Notable Artists:
    • Vincent van Gogh - Starry Night
    • Paul Cézanne - Mont Sainte-Victoire
    • Georges Seurat - A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (Pointillism)

Pointillism, pioneered by Seurat, utilized tiny dots of color that, when viewed from a distance, formed a complete image. This technique aimed to create a more scientific approach to color mixing.

Cubism

Cubism broke from traditional perspectives by representing subjects from multiple angles, reducing them to geometric shapes. This movement, led by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, marked a radical departure from traditional representations of space.

  • Characteristics: Fragmented subjects, geometric forms, multiple perspectives.
  • Notable Artists:
    • Pablo Picasso - Les Demoiselles d'Avignon
    • Georges Braque - Violin and Candlestick

Cubism focused on abstraction and sought to challenge the way people perceived the world by representing objects in new, non-representational ways.

Women in Modern Culture

Despite the cultural changes in Europe during the Industrial Revolution, women’s roles in society remained largely unchanged, with only gradual improvements in their legal and social status.

  • The Scientific Debate on Gender: Intellectuals, including Charles Darwin in The Descent of Man, promoted views that women were biologically inferior to men, reinforcing stereotypes about women’s roles as mothers and caregivers.
  • The Contagious Diseases Act (1864-1886) in England was another example of the control over women’s bodies. Women suspected of prostitution were subject to forced medical exams, and if they were found to have diseases, they were detained. This law sparked protests from middle-class women, leading to its repeal in 1886.

Feminist movements, notably led by Emmeline Pankhurst, became more prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Pankhurst’s Suffragette movement advocated for women's rights, culminating in women gaining the right to vote in Britain in 1918 (for women over 30) and 1928 (for all women over 21).

Continuities and Changes in Artistic Expression (1815-1914)

Continuities:

  • Art remained a reflection of societal values, political ideologies, and social conditions.
  • The depiction of human nature and the human condition remained central to European art.
  • European art continued to be influenced by classical ideals, although these were increasingly challenged by new movements like Romanticism and Realism.

Changes:

  • Romanticism broke with Neoclassical rationalism, emphasizing intuition, emotion, and individuality. This marked a move away from idealized, structured forms toward more personal and emotional expressions.
  • Realism rejected the idealized subjects of Romanticism and focused on the everyday lives of ordinary people, especially the working class, often highlighting social issues like poverty and exploitation.
  • Modernism, with movements such as Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, and Pointillism, moved further away from representational art, embracing abstraction, experimentation, and subjective interpretations of reality.

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These changes in artistic expression reflect broader shifts in European society, including industrialization, political revolutions, and new philosophical ideas.

🎥 Watch: AP European History - Impressionism & Post-Impressionism

Key Terms to Review (28)

Caspar David Friedrich: Caspar David Friedrich was a German Romantic painter known for his evocative landscapes that emphasize emotion and spirituality. His works often depict scenes of nature that evoke a sense of solitude and contemplation, reflecting the broader themes of Romanticism and the 19th-century culture and arts movement, where artists sought to express personal feelings and connect with the sublime in nature.
Claude Monet: Claude Monet was a French painter and a leading figure in the Impressionist movement, known for his revolutionary approach to capturing light and color in nature. His work marked a shift from traditional painting techniques, focusing instead on the fleeting effects of light and atmosphere, which significantly influenced 19th-century culture and arts.
Contagious Diseases Act: The Contagious Diseases Act was a series of laws enacted in the late 19th century in Britain, aimed at controlling sexually transmitted diseases among military personnel. These laws allowed for the examination and detention of women suspected of being sex workers in designated port towns, reflecting the broader societal attitudes towards women and morality during this period. The acts sparked significant debate and resistance, leading to a burgeoning social reform movement focused on women's rights and public health.
Cubism: Cubism is an avant-garde art movement that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by the use of geometric shapes, interlocking planes, and a fragmented perspective to depict subjects from multiple viewpoints. This innovative approach aimed to challenge traditional representations of reality, leading to a radical rethinking of how art could express complex ideas and emotions. Influenced by the rapid changes of the time, Cubism laid the groundwork for various modern art movements and reflected the shifting cultural landscape.
Darwin’s Descent of Man: Darwin's Descent of Man is a book published in 1871 by Charles Darwin that expands upon his theory of evolution, specifically addressing human evolution and the concept of natural selection in relation to human beings. This work highlighted the idea that humans share a common ancestry with other primates and sparked significant discussions in various fields including anthropology, biology, and ethics, influencing cultural attitudes towards humanity's place in nature.
Edgar Degas: Edgar Degas was a French artist renowned for his contributions to the Impressionist movement, particularly known for his paintings, sculptures, and drawings that depict ballet dancers and everyday scenes. His work is characterized by a unique approach to composition, capturing motion and the human form with innovative techniques, making him a pivotal figure in 19th-century culture and arts.
Emmeline Pankhurst: Emmeline Pankhurst was a British political activist and leader of the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century, known for her tireless efforts in advocating for women's right to vote. She founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903, which became famous for its militant tactics and rallying campaigns that brought national attention to the struggle for women's suffrage. Pankhurst's influence extended beyond her time, making her a key figure in the history of feminist movements.
Francisco Goya: Francisco Goya was a Spanish painter and printmaker, considered one of the most important artists of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. His works reflect the cultural shifts of his time, moving from the Rococo style to a more personal and darker Romanticism that questioned societal norms and depicted the human condition in a new light. Goya's art not only showcases his technical skill but also provides insight into the political and social turmoil of Spain during his lifetime.
Georges Seurat: Georges Seurat was a French painter known for developing the technique of Pointillism, a method of painting that uses small dots of color to create an image. His work marked a significant shift in 19th-century art, as it emphasized scientific approaches to color and light, which was part of the broader movement toward modernism in visual arts during this period.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means. This concept significantly shaped 19th-century politics, driving nations to compete for overseas territories and leading to cultural exchanges and conflicts that influenced art, literature, and international relations.
Impressionism: Impressionism is an art movement that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by a focus on capturing light and color in a way that conveys the artist's immediate perception of a scene. This style often features loose brushwork and an emphasis on the effects of light, often painted en plein air (outdoors) to capture a moment in time. Impressionism marked a departure from the detailed realism of earlier art movements and is closely linked to the cultural shifts of the time, including changes in society and technology.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial growth and technological advancement that began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America. This transformative era reshaped economies, societies, and cultures, leading to significant changes in labor, urbanization, and production methods.
Ludwig van Beethoven: Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist who is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in the history of Western classical music. His work marked a transition between the Classical and Romantic eras, influencing generations of musicians and composers. Beethoven's compositions are characterized by their emotional depth, innovative use of form, and profound expressiveness, making him a central figure in 19th-century culture and arts.
Modern Art: Modern Art refers to a broad cultural movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a break from traditional artistic conventions and a focus on innovative techniques and ideas. It reflects the dramatic changes in society during this period, including industrialization, urbanization, and the challenges of modern life. Artists sought to express their individual perspectives and emotions, often experimenting with abstract forms, new materials, and unconventional subjects.
Pablo Picasso: Pablo Picasso was a Spanish painter, sculptor, and one of the most influential artists of the 20th century, known for co-founding the Cubist movement and for his diverse styles throughout his career. His innovative techniques and artistic expressions made a significant impact on modern art, influencing countless artists and movements in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Paul Gauguin: Paul Gauguin was a French post-Impressionist painter known for his bold use of color and synthetist style, which sought to express the artist's emotional response to subjects rather than mere representation. His work played a significant role in the evolution of modern art, particularly through his explorations of non-Western cultures and symbolism.
Paul Cezanne: Paul Cezanne was a French artist whose work laid the foundations for the transition from 19th-century Impressionism to 20th-century Cubism. He is known for his innovative approach to form, color, and perspective, which challenged traditional methods of representation and influenced many modern artists. Cezanne's emphasis on the structural elements of his subjects and his methodical brushwork marked a significant evolution in the art world during this period.
Pinturas Negras: Pinturas Negras, or Black Paintings, are a series of 14 dark and haunting works created by the Spanish painter Francisco Goya between 1819 and 1823. These paintings, characterized by their somber tones and unsettling themes, reflect Goya's response to the turmoil of his time, including personal despair and societal upheaval. They were painted directly onto the walls of his home, showcasing a shift from traditional artistic techniques to more modern expressions of emotion and dark subject matter.
Pointillism: Pointillism is an art technique developed in the late 19th century where paintings are created using small, distinct dots of color that blend together from a distance. This method, associated with the post-Impressionist movement, reflects a shift towards exploring color theory and optical effects, emphasizing the viewer's perception in the experience of art.
Post-Impressionism: Post-Impressionism is an art movement that emerged in the late 19th century as a reaction against the limitations of Impressionism. It sought to emphasize emotional expression and the use of color and form to convey deeper meanings, moving beyond the fleeting impressions of light and atmosphere that characterized Impressionism. Artists associated with this movement, such as Vincent van Gogh and Paul Cézanne, focused on subjective experiences and often employed bold colors and innovative techniques to explore themes of individuality and personal vision.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a response to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. It emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature, contrasting with the rationalism of preceding eras. This movement influenced various cultural expressions, shaping new ideas about society, art, and politics.
South Pacific: The South Pacific is a vast region of the Pacific Ocean that encompasses numerous islands and island nations, characterized by its unique cultures, diverse ecosystems, and significant historical interactions with European powers during the 19th century. This area became a focal point for artistic and cultural expression, heavily influencing literature, painting, and music as artists sought inspiration from its landscapes and peoples.
Suffragette movement: The Suffragette movement was a campaign in the late 19th and early 20th centuries focused on securing voting rights for women, characterized by militant tactics and grassroots activism. It sought to challenge traditional gender roles and promote women's rights, making significant strides towards gender equality in a period marked by artistic expression and social change.
Victor Hugo: Victor Hugo was a prominent French writer of the 19th century, renowned for his contributions to literature as a novelist, poet, and playwright. His works, deeply intertwined with the cultural and social issues of his time, reflected themes of justice, love, and the struggles of the human condition, making him a central figure in the Romantic movement.
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog: Wanderer above the Sea of Fog is a famous painting by German Romantic artist Caspar David Friedrich, completed in 1818. This artwork symbolizes the Romantic movement's focus on individual experience, nature, and the sublime, showcasing a solitary figure standing atop a rocky precipice, gazing over a sea of fog that obscures the landscape below. The painting reflects themes of exploration, introspection, and the emotional response to nature that were prominent in 19th-century culture and arts.
Waterlilies: Waterlilies refers to a series of approximately 250 paintings by the French Impressionist artist Claude Monet, created between 1897 and 1926, that depict the serene beauty of his flower garden at Giverny. These artworks exemplify the transition in 19th-century culture and arts towards Impressionism, which emphasized light, color, and the natural world over traditional artistic techniques.
William Wordsworth: William Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet known for his deep appreciation of nature, the human experience, and the emotional power of poetry. He, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped launch the Romantic Age in English literature with their joint publication 'Lyrical Ballads' in 1798, which emphasized individualism and emotional expression over the classical ideals of reason and restraint.
Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU): The Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) was a British women’s suffrage organization founded in 1903 that aimed to secure voting rights for women through militant tactics. The WSPU is significant as it represented a radical shift in the women's suffrage movement, prioritizing direct action and confrontational strategies over traditional lobbying. This approach not only influenced the suffrage movement but also reflected broader cultural changes regarding gender roles and social activism during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.