🇪🇺AP European History Unit 7 – 19th Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Key Historical Context

• 19th century Europe marked by significant political, social, and economic changes following the Age of Enlightenment and the French Revolution
• Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) reshaped European political landscape and led to the rise of nationalism
• Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aimed to restore stability and balance of power in Europe after Napoleon's defeat
• Rapid industrialization transformed economies and societies, leading to the rise of the middle class and urban growth
• Emergence of new political ideologies, such as liberalism, conservatism, and socialism, challenged traditional power structures
• Revolutions of 1848 across Europe reflected growing demands for political and social reforms
• Unification of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871) redrew the political map of Europe
• Colonialism and imperialism expanded European influence globally, particularly in Africa and Asia

Major Political Ideologies

• Liberalism emphasized individual rights, limited government, and free markets
  • Advocated for constitutional monarchies or republics, separation of powers, and rule of law
  • Supported economic policies of laissez-faire capitalism and free trade
• Conservatism sought to maintain traditional social hierarchies and institutions
  • Defended monarchy, aristocracy, and established religion as pillars of stability
  • Opposed rapid political and social changes, favoring gradual reforms if necessary
• Socialism called for collective ownership of the means of production and equal distribution of wealth
  • Criticized capitalist exploitation of workers and advocated for improved working conditions and social welfare
  • Marxism, developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, provided a theoretical framework for socialist movements
• Anarchism rejected all forms of government authority and advocated for a stateless society based on voluntary cooperation
• Nationalism promoted loyalty to one's nation and the right of self-determination for distinct cultural or ethnic groups
  • Fueled movements for national unification (Italy, Germany) and independence (Greece, Belgium)
  • Later took on more aggressive forms, such as imperialism and militarism

Revolutions and Reform Movements

• French Revolution of 1830 (July Revolution) overthrew Charles X and established a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe
• Revolutions of 1848 swept across Europe, driven by demands for political reform, social equality, and national self-determination
  • France: Second Republic established, later replaced by Second Empire under Napoleon III
  • Austrian Empire: Revolutions in Vienna, Hungary, and Italy challenged Habsburg rule
  • German states: Demands for political unification and democratic reforms
• Reforms in Britain gradually expanded political participation and improved working conditions
  • Reform Act of 1832 extended voting rights to more middle-class men
  • Chartist movement (1838-1857) called for universal male suffrage and other democratic reforms
  • Factory Act of 1833 and Mines Act of 1842 regulated child labor and improved safety standards
• Abolition of slavery in the British Empire (1833) and the United States (1865) marked significant social reforms
• Women's rights movements emerged, advocating for suffrage, property rights, and access to education
  • Seneca Falls Convention (1848) in the United States launched the organized women's rights movement

Nationalism and Nation-Building

• Nationalism inspired movements for national unification and independence across Europe
• Italian unification (Risorgimento) achieved through the efforts of leaders like Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso di Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi
  • Kingdom of Italy proclaimed in 1861 under King Victor Emmanuel II
• German unification led by Prussia and its chancellor, Otto von Bismarck
  • Wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-71) consolidated Prussian power
  • German Empire established in 1871 with Wilhelm I as emperor and Bismarck as chancellor
• Independence movements in the Balkans challenged Ottoman rule and reshaped Southeast Europe
  • Greece gained independence in 1832 after a successful war of independence (1821-1829)
  • Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria achieved autonomy or independence in the late 19th century
• Nationalist tensions contributed to the outbreak of World War I (1914-1918)

Industrial Revolution's Impact

• Industrialization began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America in the 19th century
• Technological innovations, such as the steam engine, spinning jenny, and power loom, transformed manufacturing processes
• Factory system replaced traditional cottage industries, leading to mass production and urbanization
• Transportation improvements, including railroads and steamships, facilitated the movement of goods and people
• Economic growth and increased productivity led to rising living standards for some, but also widened social inequalities
• Emergence of new social classes: industrial bourgeoisie (factory owners) and proletariat (factory workers)
• Harsh working conditions in factories and mines led to the rise of labor movements and trade unions
• Environmental degradation, including air and water pollution, accompanied rapid industrialization

Social and Cultural Shifts

• Urbanization accelerated as people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of industrial jobs
  • Growth of large cities like London, Paris, and Berlin led to overcrowding and poor living conditions for the working class
  • Development of urban infrastructure, such as sewage systems and public transportation, to address challenges
• Rising literacy rates and the expansion of public education fostered the spread of ideas and knowledge
• Secularization challenged the authority of established churches and traditional religious beliefs
• Romanticism in art, literature, and music emphasized emotion, individualism, and a connection to nature
  • Works by poets like William Wordsworth and painters like Caspar David Friedrich reflected Romantic ideals
• Realism in literature and art depicted everyday life and social issues, often focusing on the experiences of the working class
  • Novels by authors like Honoré de Balzac and Charles Dickens portrayed the realities of industrial society
• Scientific advancements, such as Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and Louis Pasteur's germ theory, transformed understanding of the natural world

Key Figures and Their Influence

• Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821): French military leader and emperor whose conquests reshaped European politics
• Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859): Austrian statesman who played a key role in the Congress of Vienna and promoted conservative policies
• Queen Victoria (1819-1901): British monarch whose long reign (1837-1901) saw significant political, social, and economic changes
• Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895): Developed the theory of communism and authored influential works like "The Communist Manifesto"
• Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898): Prussian statesman who orchestrated German unification and served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire
• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882): Italian nationalist and military leader who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882): British naturalist whose theory of evolution by natural selection revolutionized scientific understanding of life
• Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928): British suffragette who led the women's suffrage movement in the United Kingdom

Legacy and Long-Term Effects

• 19th-century developments laid the foundation for modern European politics, economies, and societies
• Political ideologies like liberalism, socialism, and nationalism continue to shape political discourse and movements
• Industrial Revolution's impact on production, transportation, and communication set the stage for globalization
• Social and economic inequalities persisted, leading to ongoing struggles for workers' rights and social welfare
• Women's suffrage and gender equality remained key issues into the 20th century and beyond
• Nationalist tensions and imperial rivalries contributed to the outbreak of World War I and the reshaping of the global order
• Scientific advancements of the 19th century paved the way for further discoveries and technological innovations
• Cultural movements like Romanticism and Realism influenced the development of modern art, literature, and music