🇪🇺ap european history review
7.1 Context of 19th Century Politics
Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Citation:MLA
Context: Post-Congress of Vienna
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Europe entered a period of relative political stability, but this peace was fragile. The Congress sought to restore the old European order, aiming to maintain a balance of power and prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas that had emerged during the French Revolution. The major European powers—Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain—sought to suppress liberal and nationalist movements that had threatened their power.
- Conservative Backlash: Conservative governments in Europe aimed to roll back the gains of the French Revolution, such as constitutionalism and republicanism, and restore monarchies.
- Liberal and Republican Threats: Liberal and nationalist ideas became a source of unrest in many European countries, especially among emerging middle classes and ethnic groups seeking independence or unification.
The Rise of Nationalism and Its Impact
Nationalism, fueled by ideas of common language, culture, and heritage, became one of the most powerful forces in 19th-century Europe. National movements aimed at creating nation-states, either through the unification of fragmented territories or through the independence of oppressed ethnic groups, started to gain momentum.
- Nationalism as a Threat: The breakdown of the Concert of Europe, which had been established to maintain the balance of power, allowed nationalism to gain ground. Nationalist movements, especially in Italy and Germany, challenged the existing political order.
- Ethnic and Cultural Unification: Countries like Italy and Germany sought to unite regions with shared cultural and historical ties, ultimately transforming the European map and shifting the balance of power.
Unification of Italy
- Cavour and Garibaldi: Through a combination of diplomacy (Cavour) and military action (Garibaldi), Italy unified from a patchwork of states and kingdoms into a single nation-state in 1861.
- Impact: The unification of Italy altered the European power dynamics, particularly in the Mediterranean, and set a precedent for other nationalist movements.
Unification of Germany
- Bismarck's Realpolitik: Under Otto von Bismarck, the fragmented German states unified into the German Empire in 1871. This was achieved through a series of wars and political maneuvering, notably the Franco-Prussian War.
- Impact: Germany's unification shifted the balance of power in Europe, particularly with its newfound industrial strength and military prowess.
We will go more in depth about the Italian and German unification process in a couple of topics!
Political and Diplomatic Shifts
The unifications of Italy and Germany, along with increasing nationalist movements elsewhere, prompted a reevaluation of Europe’s diplomatic strategies.
- New Diplomatic Order: The rise of new nation-states like Italy and Germany contributed to an overhaul of Europe’s diplomatic relations, which had been defined by the Congress of Vienna. These shifts led to increased competition for influence and territory, especially in Eastern Europe and Africa.
Liberal Reforms: Nationalist and liberal movements often worked in tandem to push for political and social reforms, such as universal male suffrage, constitutionalism, and civil liberties.
Imperialism and Expansion in the Eastern Hemisphere
With the limitations on territorial expansion in Europe following the Congress of Vienna, European powers turned their attention to the Eastern Hemisphere. Industrialization enabled European nations to expand their influence globally, often through colonization and imperialism.
- The Scramble for Africa: European powers partitioned Africa in the late 19th century, driven by a desire for raw materials, strategic ports, and markets for manufactured goods. This period saw the rise of imperialism as European nations sought to dominate parts of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.
- Technological Advancements: Innovations from the Second Industrial Revolution, such as steamships, the telegraph, and advanced weaponry, facilitated European dominance over distant territories.
Industrialization, Militarization, and Tensions
- The Second Industrial Revolution: Technological advances, including electricity, chemicals, and steel, gave European powers unprecedented military and economic capabilities. This fueled imperialist ambitions and an arms race among European nations.
- Tensions Rise: As industrialization and imperialism intensified, so did competition for global influence. The rapid buildup of military strength, especially in Germany and Britain, heightened tensions, contributing to the onset of World War I in 1914.
Intellectual Movements and Shifting Worldviews
During this period, Europe’s intellectual landscape was shaped by a growing divide between realism and romanticism, as well as the rise of materialism and scientific rationalism.
- Realism vs. Romanticism:
- Realism focused on portraying life as it was, emphasizing objectivity and scientific realism.
- Romanticism celebrated individual expression, emotion, and the sublime, often in opposition to the rational, industrialized world.
Materialism and Scientific Realism: After the Revolutions of 1848, many European intellectuals shifted toward a more realist and materialist worldview, prioritizing science, industry, and social progress over idealism or metaphysical concerns.
🎥 Watch: AP European History - Imperialism
Key Terms to Review (13)
Africa: Africa is the second-largest and second-most populous continent, known for its diverse cultures, languages, and rich history. Throughout history, Africa has been a focal point for trade, colonization, migration, and cultural exchanges that have significantly influenced global dynamics.
Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a diplomatic conference held from 1814 to 1815 aimed at restoring stability and order in Europe after the upheaval caused by the Napoleonic Wars. It was significant for redrawing the map of Europe, balancing power among the major nations, and establishing a framework for future international diplomacy.
Eastern Hemisphere: The Eastern Hemisphere is the half of the Earth that is east of the Prime Meridian and west of the International Date Line, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. This region played a crucial role in the 19th century, particularly regarding colonial expansion, trade routes, and global interactions that influenced political dynamics across continents.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which fundamentally changed the structure of French society and government. It marked the rise of popular sovereignty, the end of absolute monarchy, and the birth of modern democracy, influencing revolutionary movements worldwide.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means. This concept significantly shaped 19th-century politics, driving nations to compete for overseas territories and leading to cultural exchanges and conflicts that influenced art, literature, and international relations.
Industrialization: Industrialization is the process of transforming economies from agrarian-based systems to industrial ones, characterized by the mass production of goods, the use of machinery, and the development of factories. This transformation significantly altered social structures, economic practices, and cultural norms across Europe.
Liberalism: Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual freedoms, equal rights, and the protection of civil liberties, advocating for a government that derives its power from the consent of the governed. Rooted in Enlightenment thought, liberalism championed ideas such as democracy, free markets, and limited government. This ideology significantly influenced political changes and social movements throughout Europe during the 19th century, especially in response to the conservative order established after the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon’s Continental System: Napoleon’s Continental System was an economic blockade aimed at destroying Great Britain's trade by prohibiting European nations from trading with them. This strategy was a significant part of Napoleon's broader efforts to consolidate power in Europe and was intended to weaken Britain's economy and military. However, the system ultimately failed, leading to widespread smuggling and resentment among the nations involved, shaping the political landscape of 19th century Europe.
Nation-states: Nation-states are political entities characterized by a defined territory, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. They are formed when cultural and national identities align with political borders, allowing a sense of unity and shared identity among its citizens. The concept emerged in Europe during the late medieval and early modern periods, becoming more pronounced in the 19th century as political movements sought self-determination.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation or group, often advocating for self-determination and the sovereignty of nations. This sentiment grew significantly during the 19th and 20th centuries, influencing various movements, conflicts, and changes in political structures across Europe and beyond.
Republican Ideas: Republican Ideas refer to a political philosophy that emphasizes the importance of a government based on the consent of the governed, civic virtue, and the common good. During the 19th century, these ideas gained traction as movements for democracy and self-governance emerged across Europe, challenging monarchies and advocating for more representative forms of government.
US Monroe Doctrine: The US Monroe Doctrine, proclaimed in 1823, was a foreign policy statement asserting that the Americas were off-limits to further European colonization and interference. It reflected the growing nationalism of the United States and aimed to protect newly independent nations in Latin America from European imperial ambitions, signifying a shift in the balance of power in the Western Hemisphere.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, involving many of the world's great powers and resulting in significant political, social, and economic changes across Europe and beyond. This war marked a turning point in history, reshaping borders and governments and laying the groundwork for future global conflicts.