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History of Canada – Before 1867
Table of Contents
Unit 5 Overview: The Road to Confederation
5.1 The Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences
5.2 The British North America Act and the Creation of the Dominion of Canada
5.3 The Fathers of Confederation and their Vision for Canada
5.4 Early Challenges and Successes of the New Nation

Canada's early years as a nation were marked by significant challenges. From integrating diverse provinces to building national infrastructure, the young country faced political, economic, and social hurdles. Cultural tensions, external pressures, and security concerns added to the complexity of nation-building.

Despite these obstacles, Canada developed strategies to foster unity. Economic policies, infrastructure projects, and legal frameworks helped bind the nation together. While some initiatives succeeded, others had mixed results, shaping Canada's development and identity in the decades following Confederation.

Early Challenges for Canada

Political and Economic Obstacles

  • Integration of diverse provinces with varying interests complicated federal system establishment
    • Required balancing regional needs with national goals
    • Provinces reluctant to cede power to federal government
  • Development of national infrastructure presented financial strain
    • Transcontinental railway construction demanded massive investment
    • Limited government resources stretched thin across vast territory
  • Creation of cohesive national economic policy proved difficult
    • Competing regional economic interests (maritime trade vs prairie agriculture)
    • Debate over free trade vs protectionism (National Policy)

Social and Cultural Tensions

  • Linguistic and cultural differences created societal friction
    • English-French divide most prominent (Quebec vs rest of Canada)
    • Preservation of French language and culture in Quebec a contentious issue
  • Treatment of Indigenous peoples raised ethical and practical concerns
    • Land rights disputes and treaty negotiations ongoing
    • Assimilation policies (residential schools) caused long-term trauma
  • Integration of new immigrants challenged social cohesion
    • Varied ethnic backgrounds introduced new cultural elements
    • Discrimination and xenophobia emerged in some communities

External Pressures and Security Concerns

  • Maintaining sovereignty faced immediate threats
    • Fenian raids from Irish-American groups (1866, 1870, 1871)
    • American expansionist ambitions (Manifest Destiny ideology)
  • Regional wealth and resource disparities strained national unity
    • Maritime provinces felt economically disadvantaged
    • Western territories viewed as underdeveloped frontier
  • Westward expansion presented logistical and moral challenges
    • Negotiating with Indigenous peoples for land cessions
    • Establishing governance in sparsely populated areas
  • Diplomacy with Britain and US required delicate balance
    • Asserting autonomy while maintaining beneficial relationships
    • Navigating complex international treaties and trade agreements

Strategies for National Unity

Economic and Infrastructure Development

  • National Policy implementation aimed to stimulate growth
    • Protective tariffs to shield domestic industries
    • Railway construction to connect provinces physically
    • Western settlement promotion to populate prairies
  • Transcontinental railway completion in 1885 united nation
    • Facilitated trade and communication across vast distances
    • Symbolized technological progress and national ambition
  • North-West Mounted Police establishment in 1873
    • Maintained order in western territories (Saskatchewan, Alberta)
    • Acted as federal government representatives in remote areas
  • Supreme Court of Canada creation in 1875
    • Unified legal system across provinces
    • Interpreted division of powers between federal and provincial governments
  • Indian Act implementation in 1876
    • Centralized control over Indigenous affairs
    • Imposed assimilationist policies with long-lasting negative impacts

Cultural and Linguistic Policies

  • Language policies addressed linguistic tensions
    • Manitoba Schools Question attempted to balance English and French education
    • Official bilingualism promoted in federal institutions
  • Indigenous treaty negotiations continued westward expansion
    • Numbered Treaties (1871-1921) secured land for settlement
    • Created reserves and promised government support

Diplomatic Initiatives

  • Washington Treaty of 1871 improved US relations
    • Resolved lingering border disputes
    • Established fishing rights in Atlantic waters
  • Participation in imperial conferences asserted growing autonomy
    • Advocated for Canadian interests within British Empire
    • Gradually increased control over foreign policy

Successes and Failures of Canada

Infrastructure and Economic Achievements

  • Canadian Pacific Railway completion connected nation
    • Facilitated east-west trade and communication
    • Enabled settlement of western provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta)
  • National Policy implementation yielded mixed results
    • Stimulated industrial growth in central Canada (Ontario, Quebec)
    • Created economic disparities between regions (Maritimes lagged behind)

Territorial Expansion and Indigenous Relations

  • Red River Resistance (1869-1870) and North-West Rebellion (1885)
    • Demonstrated challenges of westward expansion
    • Led to creation of Manitoba and assertion of federal authority
    • Resulted in marginalization of Métis and Indigenous peoples
  • Treaty process secured vast territories for settlement
    • Enabled agricultural development of prairies
    • Failed to honor many commitments to Indigenous peoples

International Relations and Diplomacy

  • Response to Fenian raids strengthened national defense
    • Mobilized militia and improved border security
    • Fostered sense of Canadian identity distinct from US
  • Alaska Boundary Dispute (1903) showcased diplomatic presence
    • Participation in international arbitration
    • Unfavorable outcome highlighted need for stronger foreign policy

Political and Cultural Development

  • Evolution of responsible government solidified democratic principles
    • Cabinet accountability to elected parliament
    • Development of political party system (Conservatives, Liberals)
  • Emergence of distinct Canadian identity
    • Blend of British, French, and Indigenous influences
    • Growing sense of nationhood separate from imperial ties
  • Participation in South African War (1899-1902)
    • First overseas military deployment as nation
    • Began establishing presence on world stage

Key Terms to Review (30)

Red River Resistance: The Red River Resistance was a pivotal conflict that took place in 1869-1870 in the Red River Valley, involving the Métis people and the Canadian government. This resistance was largely a response to the transfer of land from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada without proper consultation with the Métis, leading to demands for rights, recognition, and the preservation of their land and culture.
Alaska Boundary Dispute: The Alaska Boundary Dispute was a conflict between the United States and Great Britain over the precise boundaries of Alaska, particularly the coastal line and the Panhandle area, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This dispute emerged from differing interpretations of treaties and geographical understandings, highlighting tensions between the two nations as they sought to define their territorial claims in North America.
North-west rebellion: The north-west rebellion was a violent uprising that took place in 1885 in Canada, primarily led by the Métis people against the Canadian government. It arose from tensions over land rights, cultural preservation, and the government's failure to address the needs of the Métis and other Indigenous groups in the western territories. The conflict highlighted the struggles faced by these communities in their efforts to assert their rights in a rapidly expanding nation.
Numbered treaties: Numbered treaties are a series of agreements between the Canadian government and various Indigenous nations made from 1871 to 1921, aimed at defining the rights and obligations of both parties concerning land use and governance. These treaties were pivotal in the establishment of Canada as a nation, as they facilitated the expansion of settlement and resource extraction while often failing to fulfill the promises made to Indigenous peoples, leading to ongoing disputes and challenges.
Manitoba Schools Question: The Manitoba Schools Question refers to a political and legal controversy in Canada concerning the rights of French-speaking Catholics to access public funding for their schools in Manitoba during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This issue highlighted the tensions between English-speaking Protestants and French-speaking Catholics, ultimately influencing the development of education policy and language rights in the province.
Canadian Pacific Railway: The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) was a transcontinental railway completed in 1885, connecting Eastern Canada to the Pacific coast in British Columbia. This monumental project played a vital role in the early development of Canada as a nation, facilitating trade, immigration, and the movement of goods and people across vast distances. The CPR was not only an engineering feat but also a symbol of national unity and expansion during a period marked by various challenges faced by the young country.
Washington Treaty of 1871: The Washington Treaty of 1871, also known as the Treaty of Washington, was a significant diplomatic agreement between the United States and Great Britain that aimed to resolve outstanding issues related to the American Civil War and set guidelines for future relations between the two nations. The treaty marked a critical point in the post-Civil War era, addressing both economic and territorial disputes, which contributed to the early successes of the new nation as it sought to establish itself on the international stage.
Supreme Court of Canada: The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court in the country, established to ensure the rule of law and interpret the Constitution. It serves as the final court of appeal, resolving legal disputes and interpreting laws that affect all Canadians. This court plays a crucial role in shaping Canadian law and protecting rights and freedoms under the Constitution, especially during the early challenges and successes of the new nation.
Transcontinental railway: A transcontinental railway is a railroad system that spans an entire continent, connecting the east and west coasts. In the context of early Canada, this railway was crucial for national unity, economic development, and the settlement of the western territories, reflecting the challenges and successes faced by the new nation.
National Policy: National Policy refers to a series of economic measures implemented in Canada during the late 19th century aimed at promoting economic growth and national unity. This policy primarily focused on protecting Canadian industries through tariffs, encouraging immigration to populate the West, and constructing a transcontinental railway to facilitate trade and transportation across the vast country.
Conservative Party: The Conservative Party was a political organization that emerged in Canada during the mid-19th century, advocating for traditional values, strong central governance, and the interests of the established elite. In the context of the early nationhood, this party played a significant role in shaping policy and responding to the various challenges faced by the newly formed nation.
Treaty of Paris 1763: The Treaty of Paris 1763 was an agreement that ended the Seven Years' War, resulting in significant territorial changes in North America. It marked the transition of French territories in Canada to British control, reshaping colonial dynamics and laying the groundwork for future conflicts and developments in what would become Canada.
North-West Mounted Police: The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) was a Canadian federal law enforcement agency established in 1873 to maintain law and order in the western territories, particularly in response to the influx of settlers and the need for governance. The NWMP played a crucial role in the early challenges faced by Canada as a new nation, including enforcing laws, promoting peace, and establishing a presence in the West during a time of rapid expansion.
Establishment of the Parliament of Canada: The establishment of the Parliament of Canada refers to the formation of the legislative framework that governs Canada, created by the British North America Act of 1867. This act united the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia into a single Dominion, laying the groundwork for a parliamentary democracy that combined elements of British governance with local autonomy. The new Parliament was responsible for making laws and overseeing the administration of government in a newly federated nation.
Fenian Raids: The Fenian Raids were a series of armed incursions into Canada by the Fenian Brotherhood, an Irish nationalist organization based in the United States, between 1866 and 1871. These raids aimed to pressure Britain to grant Ireland independence and were a manifestation of the broader struggles for Irish nationalism. The Fenian actions contributed to rising tensions between Canada and the United States and highlighted the vulnerabilities of the newly formed nation during its early years.
Colonial Economy: A colonial economy refers to the economic system established in a colony that primarily serves the interests of the colonizing country. This system is characterized by the extraction of resources, production of raw materials, and reliance on colonial labor, often at the expense of local economies and communities. Colonial economies were crucial for the early development and sustenance of new nations, shaping their trade relationships and economic foundations.
Rebellions of 1837: The Rebellions of 1837 were a series of armed uprisings that took place in Upper and Lower Canada against colonial rule, fueled by widespread discontent with political corruption and lack of democratic representation. These rebellions were significant as they highlighted the growing desire for political reform and the need for a more accountable government, ultimately leading to changes in governance in Canada.
Creation of the dominion: The creation of the dominion refers to the establishment of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867, which united the British North American colonies of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia into a single federal entity. This event marked a significant milestone in Canada's history, as it laid the foundation for a new nation that aimed to address governance, representation, and economic development while balancing regional interests and maintaining ties to Britain.
War of 1812: The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the United States and Great Britain from 1812 to 1815, primarily over maritime issues and trade restrictions. This war played a critical role in shaping the early challenges and successes of the new American nation, highlighting issues such as national sovereignty, identity, and the relationship between Britain and its North American colonies.
Indigenous relations: Indigenous relations refer to the interactions, relationships, and dynamics between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous settlers or governments. These relationships have been shaped by historical events, treaties, land rights, cultural exchanges, and the ongoing struggle for recognition and justice. Understanding indigenous relations is crucial for addressing the historical and contemporary challenges faced by Indigenous communities and the impact of colonization on their rights and identities.
Liberal Party: The Liberal Party in Canada is a political party that emerged in the 19th century, primarily advocating for individual freedoms, social justice, and progressive reforms. It played a significant role in shaping the new nation following Confederation in 1867, as it sought to address early challenges such as governance, representation, and economic development.
George Brown: George Brown was a prominent Canadian politician, journalist, and one of the key Fathers of Confederation, who played a significant role in the creation of Canada as a nation. He was an advocate for responsible government and worked tirelessly to unite the provinces of British North America. His influence was crucial during the Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences, where he promoted the idea of federalism as a solution to political deadlock and regional rivalries.
Indian Act: The Indian Act is a Canadian federal law that was first enacted in 1876, which governs the relationship between the federal government and Indigenous peoples in Canada. This act aimed to assimilate Indigenous people into Euro-Canadian society, controlling various aspects of their lives, including land use, governance, and cultural practices. The Indian Act is significant because it reflects the government's policies towards Indigenous populations during a time of nation-building and development in Canada.
John A. Macdonald: John A. Macdonald was the first Prime Minister of Canada and a key architect in the creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. His leadership during significant conferences helped shape the political landscape of the new nation, making him a pivotal figure in Canadian history, especially during the formative years of Confederation and the challenges faced by the young country.
Confederation: Confederation refers to the process by which several British North American colonies united to form the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. This union was motivated by the need for a stronger political and economic structure to address shared challenges, such as defense, trade, and governance. The formation of a confederation marked a significant shift towards self-governance and cooperation among provinces, creating a framework for collective decision-making.
Responsible Government: Responsible government is a political system where the executive branch derives its legitimacy from the elected legislature and is accountable to it. This concept was crucial in shaping the political landscape in Canada, as it marked a shift towards democratic governance and greater autonomy from colonial powers, ultimately influencing key historical events and the formation of the nation.
British North America Act: The British North America Act, enacted in 1867, was a crucial piece of legislation that created the Dominion of Canada by uniting the provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. This act established a federal structure of government, outlining the division of powers between the national and provincial governments and laying the foundation for Canada's political landscape.
Federalism: Federalism is a political system where power is divided between a central authority and smaller political units, like provinces or states. This structure allows different levels of government to coexist and share responsibilities, ensuring local governance while maintaining national unity. It played a crucial role in shaping the governance and political landscape of Canada, particularly during key moments leading up to its formation as a nation.
Lower Canada: Lower Canada was a historical region in British North America, primarily corresponding to present-day Quebec, established after the Treaty of Paris in 1763. It was characterized by its French-speaking population and distinct legal and cultural identity, particularly shaped by the Quebec Act and later constitutional changes, which aimed to address the needs of its inhabitants while also reflecting the evolving political landscape of Canada leading up to Confederation.
Upper Canada: Upper Canada was a region established in 1791, encompassing the area that is now Ontario. It was created to accommodate the influx of Loyalist settlers after the American Revolution and was marked by significant political, social, and economic developments that shaped the early history of Canada leading up to Confederation.