👩🏾⚖️ap us government review
1.7 Relationship Between States and the Federal Government
Verified for the 2025 AP US Government exam•Citation:
Introduction
The U.S. Constitution outlines a unique political structure called federalism, where power is divided and shared between two levels of government: national and state. This relationship has evolved through time, shaped by legal decisions, shifting policy priorities, and practical needs for cooperation in governing a diverse republic. At its core, federalism balances unity with diversity—ensuring that central authority does not override local autonomy while preserving national coherence.
This system grants exclusive, concurrent, and reserved powers to different levels of government. It also enables dynamic cooperation through revenue sharing and federal grants while allowing legal and constitutional tools to resolve disputes between levels of governance.
Foundations of Federalism
Defining Federalism
Federalism is the constitutional arrangement that allocates sovereign powers between the federal government and the individual states. Unlike a unitary system—where power is centralized—or a confederation—where power is dispersed—federalism seeks to balance authority between national unity and regional self-rule.
This division is central to debates about liberty, state sovereignty, and national authority. It enables states to serve as “laboratories of democracy” while empowering the national government to enforce constitutional rights and manage national crises.
Article IV and Inter-State Obligations
Article IV of the Constitution addresses relationships among states and between states and the federal government. It ensures mutual respect for laws and rights while affirming republican governance.
- Full Faith and Credit Clause: States must honor the legal decisions and public records of other states (e.g., marriage licenses, civil judgments).
- Privileges and Immunities Clause: Citizens of one state cannot be treated unfairly in another.
- Extradition Clause: Fugitives must be returned to the state in which a crime was committed.
- Admission of New States: Congress holds authority to admit new states to the Union.
- Republican Form of Government: The federal government must guarantee that every state maintains representative democracy.
⭐ Article IV creates national unity through mutual legal recognition while protecting democratic governance within each state.
Types of Powers in the Federal System
The Constitution outlines specific powers for different levels of government, which are typically grouped into exclusive, concurrent, and reserved powers.
| Type of Power | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Exclusive Powers | Belong only to the federal government | Declaring war, coining money, foreign treaties |
| Reserved Powers | Belong only to the states (10th Amendment) | Establishing schools, marriage laws, licensing |
| Concurrent Powers | Shared by both federal and state governments | Taxation, building roads, enforcing laws |
| Implied Powers | Derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause | Creating a national bank, regulating air travel |
These divisions create both cooperation and friction between state and national governments—particularly when priorities or interpretations differ.
⭐ The 10th Amendment affirms that powers not delegated to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people, reinforcing the principle of limited federal authority.
Shifting Balance of Power Over Time
The balance between state and federal power has shifted repeatedly in American history—through court decisions, policy shifts, and crises.
Judicial Decisions
The Supreme Court has played a decisive role in shaping federalism.
- McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Upheld implied powers and national supremacy.
- Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): Expanded federal control over interstate commerce.
- United States v. Lopez (1995): Limited the reach of the Commerce Clause, protecting state authority.
⭐ Judicial interpretation can expand or restrict federal power depending on how constitutional clauses are read—especially the Commerce Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause.
Amendments and National Crises
- The 14th Amendment shifted power to the federal government by enabling federal courts to protect civil rights against state infringement.
- The New Deal Era greatly expanded federal regulatory authority.
- The Civil Rights Movement saw federal intervention to enforce equal protection in states resistant to change.
These developments illustrate how national priorities—economic, security-related, or moral—can influence federal-state dynamics.
Federalism and Fiscal Tools: Grants and Mandates
Federal-state relations today are also shaped by money. The national government uses financial incentives and conditions to influence state behavior. These tools reflect different degrees of autonomy and control.
| Type | Description | Who Prefers It | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Revenue Sharing | Federal funds with no conditions; states decide how to spend | Preferred by states | General budget supplements (rare today) |
| Block Grants | Federal funds with broad goals and few conditions | Preferred by states | Temporary Assistance for Needy Families |
| Categorical Grants | Funds tied to specific purposes with detailed conditions | Preferred by federal govt | Medicaid, Head Start |
| Mandates | Federal requirements imposed on states, with or without funding | Often opposed by states | Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) |
⭐ Grants provide flexibility or control depending on their design, while mandates may impose burdens without resources.
These fiscal tools give the federal government leverage over issues traditionally managed by the states—like education, infrastructure, and healthcare—thus blurring the lines of authority.
Modern Debates and Applications
Today, federalism remains a live and evolving issue. From education to public health, climate policy to civil rights, disputes over the rightful scope of state vs. federal power continue.
- Marijuana Legalization: Some states legalize it, while federal law still bans it—raising questions of enforcement and supremacy.
- COVID-19 Response: The pandemic highlighted tensions over mask mandates, vaccine distribution, and emergency powers.
- Election Laws: States set election procedures, but federal legislation (e.g., Voting Rights Act) may intervene to prevent discrimination.
These examples reveal how federalism shapes the everyday lives of citizens and how it reflects ongoing struggles over local autonomy, national standards, and individual rights.
⭐ Federalism is not a static concept—it evolves through negotiation, litigation, and democratic participation.