AP European History
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6.3 Second-Wave Industrialization and Its Effects
Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Citation:MLA
What Was the Second Industrial Revolution?
The Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914) marked a new phase of innovation in European economic and social life. ==Unlike the First Industrial Revolution, which focused on textiles, coal, and iron, the second wave was driven by steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum.== It transformed not only how goods were made, but also how people lived, worked, and thought about the world.
The First Industrial Revolution had already mechanized production and sparked urbanization. But the Second Industrial Revolution created mass production, national economies, and a consumer society—forever altering the European landscape.
Comparing the Two Industrial Revolutions
| First Industrial Revolution (c. 1750–1850) | Second Industrial Revolution (c. 1870–1914) |
|---|
| Centered in Britain | Spread across Western & Central Europe (Germany, France, Belgium) | | Focused on textiles, coal, and iron | Focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and oil | | Innovations: Spinning Jenny, Steam Engine | Innovations: Bessemer Steel Process, Telephone, Light Bulb, Internal Combustion Engine | | Powered by water and steam | Powered by electricity and petroleum | | Created the factory system | Created mass production and corporate capitalism | | Triggered early labor movements | Led to organized mass politics and labor parties |
Driving Forces Behind the Second Industrial Revolution
Technological Innovation
- ==The Bessemer Process allowed for inexpensive and mass production of steel.==
- Electricity replaced steam as the dominant power source.
- ==The rise of chemical industries (e.g. synthetic dyes, fertilizers, explosives) expanded the industrial landscape.==
- Petroleum was refined for fuel, giving rise to the internal combustion engine.
Improved Transportation and Communication
- Railroad networks expanded further across Europe, creating national economies and faster access to raw materials and consumers.
- Telegraphs, telephones, and later radio helped integrate industrial networks and facilitate mass communication.
- Steamships and refrigerated rail cars allowed perishable goods to be shipped globally.
Industrial Titans and National Powerhouses
Germany Emerges as a Leader
==Germany industrialized rapidly after unification in 1871. It invested heavily in chemical and steel industries and established technical universities to promote science-based innovation.== Companies like Krupp became global leaders in arms, railroads, and steel.
France and Belgium Follow
France industrialized at a slower, steadier pace, blending industrial growth with its artisan culture. Belgium, meanwhile, remained a major producer of coal and steel.
Eastern and Southern Europe Lag Behind
Countries like Russia, Italy, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire industrialized unevenly. A lack of infrastructure, investment, and political support (especially in areas reliant on serfdom or feudal agriculture) hindered their development.
The Rise of Mass Society
The Second Industrial Revolution created what historians call mass society, defined by four interconnected developments:
1. Mass Production
- Assembly lines, like those used by Henry Ford, revolutionized manufacturing and slashed costs.
- Standardized, cheap consumer goods became widely available: from bicycles to canned food.
2. Mass Consumption & Advertising
- With more goods came mass advertising in newspapers, storefronts, and billboards.
- Brand identity and consumer culture emerged. Think Coca-Cola or Lux Soap.
3. Mass Leisure
- Industrial workers had regulated hours, leading to leisure time.
- People visited music halls, amusement parks, beaches, and sports stadiums.
- ==Vacations were no longer for the elite. Railways made travel more accessible to the working and middle classes.==
4. Mass Politics
- ==Industrialization fueled demands for social reform, universal male suffrage, labor rights, and education.==
- Political parties and unions formed to represent the working class, especially socialist and labor parties in Germany and Britain.
- Governments began to respond with welfare programs, public education, and housing reforms.
Social Impacts of Second-Wave Industrialization
- Urbanization intensified, with overcrowded cities, sanitation crises, and class segregation.
- ==Working-class consciousness grew with people identifying less by region or trade and more by their place in industrial society.==
- Women's roles shifted: Many entered factory work, though often in low-paid, gendered jobs like textiles or domestic service.
- Education systems expanded to train the next generation of industrial workers and consumers.
Conclusion: Why It Matters
The Second Industrial Revolution changed more than machines, it transformed the structure of European life. It gave birth to mass society, increased state involvement in economics, expanded consumer culture, and laid the foundation for modern capitalist economies.
It also raised major questions: What rights do workers deserve? Should governments intervene in economics? How should wealth and power be distributed?
These questions would dominate European political debates into the 20th century—and still resonate today.
Key Terms to Review (35)
Alfred Krupp: Alfred Krupp was a prominent German industrialist in the 19th century known for founding the Krupp Steel Works in Essen, which became a major player in the steel and armaments industries during the Second Industrial Revolution. His innovations in steel production and manufacturing processes not only advanced the technology of the time but also established his company as a leading supplier of weapons and infrastructure to various nations, impacting both the economy and military dynamics in Europe.
Amusement Parks: Amusement parks are large outdoor entertainment venues that feature a variety of attractions, including rides, games, and shows. They emerged during the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of increased leisure time and disposable income during the Second Industrial Revolution, reflecting changes in social and cultural dynamics. These parks became symbols of modernity and urban life, drawing people from different classes and backgrounds to experience entertainment outside of their daily routines.
Automobile Industry: The automobile industry refers to the manufacturing and selling of vehicles, including cars, trucks, and buses. This sector emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution and played a pivotal role in transforming transportation, economies, and societies by enabling mass mobility, influencing urban development, and fostering new production techniques such as assembly line manufacturing.
Bessemer Process: The Bessemer Process is a method for mass-producing steel by blowing air through molten iron to remove impurities and increase its carbon content. This revolutionary technique, developed by Henry Bessemer in the 1850s, significantly lowered the cost of steel production and allowed for the creation of stronger, more durable steel. Its introduction marked a major turning point during the Second Industrial Revolution, leading to advancements in construction, manufacturing, and transportation.
Building Materials: Building materials refer to the substances used in construction and architecture, playing a vital role in the development of structures and infrastructure. During the Second Industrial Revolution, advancements in technology allowed for new materials to be developed and used, transforming the ways buildings were constructed. Innovations such as steel and reinforced concrete enabled architects and engineers to create larger, stronger, and more intricate designs than ever before.
Chemistry: Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter. In the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, chemistry played a crucial role in developing new materials and processes, significantly impacting industries such as textiles, pharmaceuticals, and manufacturing. Innovations in chemical processes led to the creation of synthetic dyes, fertilizers, and explosives, which transformed both production methods and everyday life.
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the flow of electric charge, which became a crucial driving force during the Second Industrial Revolution. This period saw significant advancements in electrical technology, including the development of electrical power generation and distribution systems that revolutionized industries and transformed everyday life. The widespread adoption of electricity not only enhanced productivity but also led to innovations in communication, transportation, and home conveniences, fundamentally changing society.
Factory System: The Factory System is a method of manufacturing that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by the centralized production of goods in large establishments where workers operated machines. This system transformed traditional handcraft industries by introducing mechanization, leading to increased productivity and efficiency in the production process.
First Industrial Revolution: The First Industrial Revolution was a period of significant technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change that began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to Europe and beyond. It marked a shift from agrarian economies to industrialized ones, characterized by the introduction of machinery, factory systems, and new energy sources like coal. This transformation laid the groundwork for subsequent industrialization phases and influenced social structures, economic theories, and political ideologies.
Globalized Economic Network: A globalized economic network refers to the interconnected systems of trade, finance, and production that transcend national borders, enabling goods, services, and capital to flow freely across the world. This network emerged more prominently during the Second Industrial Revolution, driven by advancements in technology and communication, which facilitated international trade and investment. It has significantly transformed economies and societies by linking distant markets and fostering global interdependence.
Henry Ford: Henry Ford was an American industrialist and the founder of the Ford Motor Company, best known for revolutionizing the automobile industry by introducing assembly line production techniques. His innovations in manufacturing not only made cars more affordable for the average American but also significantly influenced the broader economic landscape during the Second Industrial Revolution.
Krupp Family: The Krupp Family was a prominent German industrial dynasty known for its significant contributions to the steel and armaments industries during the Second Industrial Revolution. The family established the Krupp Company in Essen, which became one of the largest and most influential industrial enterprises in Europe, playing a crucial role in Germany's industrialization and military expansion.
Leisure Travel Industry: The Leisure Travel Industry refers to the segment of the tourism sector that focuses on travel for enjoyment, relaxation, and recreational purposes rather than for business or work-related reasons. This industry encompasses various services such as accommodations, transportation, attractions, and activities designed to enhance the overall travel experience. The growth of this industry during the Second Industrial Revolution can be attributed to increased disposable income, the rise of the middle class, and advancements in transportation technologies.
Manchester, England: Manchester, England is a city that became a central hub of the Industrial Revolution, particularly during the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. It was known for its booming textile industry, which symbolized the shift towards mechanization and urbanization. The innovations in production methods and the influx of workers transformed Manchester into a key player in the economic landscape of the time.
Mass Advertisement: Mass advertisement refers to the marketing strategy that emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution, characterized by the widespread promotion of goods and services through various media channels aimed at a broad audience. This method leveraged advancements in printing technology, transportation, and communication, allowing businesses to reach potential consumers on an unprecedented scale. The rise of mass advertisement played a crucial role in shaping consumer culture and transforming the relationship between producers and consumers in industrialized societies.
Mass Society: Mass society refers to a social structure characterized by the emergence of a large, urban, and industrial population that shares common cultural experiences and identities, often linked to the effects of the Second Industrial Revolution. This societal change resulted in the rise of consumer culture, mass communication, and increased political engagement among the general populace, as traditional social bonds began to weaken.
Mass Leisure: Mass leisure refers to the increase in free time available to the general public, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as a result of industrialization and urbanization. This phenomenon led to the rise of entertainment industries, cultural activities, and organized sports, which became accessible to a broader segment of society. The development of mass leisure was a significant aspect of the societal changes brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution, as it transformed how people spent their free time and engaged with each other.
Mass Production: Mass production is the manufacturing of large quantities of standardized products, often using assembly line techniques and machinery, to achieve efficiency and reduce costs. This approach revolutionized industries by enabling faster production rates, lower prices, and the ability to meet growing consumer demand, significantly impacting economic structures and social dynamics.
Mass Politics: Mass Politics refers to a political system where the general population becomes actively engaged in political processes, often through mass parties, public movements, and increased suffrage. This shift allowed for a broader base of participation in governance and was influenced by various social changes, including urbanization and the expansion of education during significant periods of transformation.
Moving Assembly Line: The moving assembly line is a manufacturing process in which products are assembled in a sequential manner as they move along a conveyor belt. This method revolutionized production during the Second Industrial Revolution by significantly increasing efficiency and reducing the time it takes to manufacture goods, especially in industries like automotive production.
Music Halls: Music halls were popular venues for entertainment in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by a variety of performances including music, comedy, and theatrical acts. They emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution, reflecting the social changes and urbanization of the time, as they provided working-class audiences with affordable leisure options and a platform for new forms of entertainment.
Newspapers: Newspapers are printed publications that provide news, information, and commentary on various topics, including politics, economics, culture, and social issues. In the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, newspapers played a crucial role in shaping public opinion, disseminating information rapidly, and connecting people in an increasingly industrialized and urbanized society.
Petroleum: Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found beneath the Earth's surface, composed of hydrocarbons and other organic materials. It became a crucial energy source during the Second Industrial Revolution, driving advancements in transportation, manufacturing, and technology, while also reshaping global economies and geopolitics.
Professional sports industry: The professional sports industry refers to the organized business of sports that generates revenue through the promotion, management, and distribution of sporting events and teams. It encompasses various aspects such as marketing, sponsorship, broadcasting rights, and merchandise sales. This industry emerged as a significant economic force during the Second Industrial Revolution, fueled by technological advancements and urbanization that transformed leisure activities and spectator sports into profitable enterprises.
Radio Transmission: Radio transmission refers to the process of sending and receiving information via electromagnetic waves, particularly through the use of radio frequencies. This technology became a hallmark of the Second Industrial Revolution, as it revolutionized communication by allowing for long-distance transmission of messages without the need for physical wires, thus connecting people across vast distances and facilitating instantaneous communication.
Railroads: Railroads are a mode of transportation consisting of vehicles running on tracks, which played a pivotal role in the industrialization and economic development of Europe during the 19th century. They facilitated faster movement of goods and people, transforming commerce and reshaping urban landscapes while enabling the expansion of industries and the spread of ideas across regions.
Refrigerated Rail Car: A refrigerated rail car, or reefer, is a type of freight car designed to transport perishable goods under controlled temperature conditions. This innovation played a critical role in the Second Industrial Revolution, allowing for the long-distance shipment of perishable food items, which transformed both agricultural practices and food distribution networks.
Second Industrial Revolution: The Second Industrial Revolution refers to a period of rapid industrial growth and technological advancement that occurred primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked by innovations in steel production, electricity, and chemical processes. This era not only transformed industries but also profoundly impacted societal structures, economies, and global relations.
Steel: Steel is an alloy made primarily of iron, with a small amount of carbon, which gives it increased strength and durability compared to pure iron. During the Second Industrial Revolution, steel became a crucial material for construction, manufacturing, and transportation, significantly impacting various industries and technological advancements.
Steel Industry: The steel industry refers to the sector of the economy that produces steel, an essential material for construction and manufacturing, which emerged as a crucial part of the Second Industrial Revolution. This period saw advancements in steel production techniques, notably the Bessemer process, which allowed for the mass production of high-quality steel at a lower cost, fueling rapid industrial growth and urbanization.
Team Sports: Team sports are competitive activities in which individuals are organized into teams to compete against one another, working collaboratively to achieve a common goal, typically scoring points. In the context of the Second Industrial Revolution, team sports emerged as a reflection of social changes, urbanization, and increased leisure time, fostering community identity and competition among different social groups.
Telephone Industry: The Telephone Industry refers to the sector focused on the development, manufacturing, and maintenance of telephone systems and equipment that revolutionized communication in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This industry emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution, marked by rapid technological advancements and significant economic transformations, allowing for instantaneous communication over long distances and fostering global connections.
Telegraph Industry: The telegraph industry refers to the technology and business of transmitting messages over long distances using electrical signals through wires. This revolutionary communication system emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution and played a crucial role in connecting people, businesses, and governments, significantly enhancing the speed and efficiency of communication across continents.
Textile Production: Textile production refers to the process of creating fabrics and textiles from raw materials, which played a crucial role in the early stages of industrialization, particularly in Europe. This process not only transformed the economy but also reshaped labor practices, social structures, and trade dynamics across the continent and beyond.
Workplace Culture: Workplace culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, behaviors, and practices that shape how work gets done within an organization. It encompasses the attitudes of employees, the way communication flows, and the overall environment in which people work. Understanding workplace culture is crucial during the Second Industrial Revolution as it reflects the changing dynamics of labor, management, and technology in industrial settings.