6.7 Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

Challenging the Conservative Order: 1815–1914

After the fall of Napoleon and the establishment of the conservative order under the Congress of Vienna, Europe entered a period of tension. Intellectual and political ideologies emerged to challenge the status quo with many of them focused on popular sovereignty, civil liberties, and the redistribution of power and wealth.

This period became known as the “Age of -Isms,” as reformers turned to political, economic, and social ideologies ending in -ism to guide their visions for change.

Liberalism: Expanding Rights and Representation

Liberalism emphasized:

• Popular sovereignty: The belief that political power should come from the people.
• Natural rights: Freedom of speech, press, religion, and protection of private property.
• Enlightened self-interest: Individuals acting in rational pursuit of their own benefit leads to a better society overall.

But not all liberals agreed on who deserved rights.

Some supported limited suffrage—only educated, property-owning men, while others, especially radicals in Britain and France, demanded:

• Universal male suffrage
• Secret ballots
• End of property requirements for voting
• Expanded education and social mobility

British Radicals and Republicans

• Chartists (1830s–1850s) were working-class activists in Britain demanding universal male suffrage.
• John Stuart Mill argued for free speech, individual liberty, and women’s equality under liberal thought.
• Jeremy Bentham advocated for utilitarianism: “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.”

Socialism: A Response to Industrial Capitalism

While liberals focused on rights and representation, socialists responded to the economic inequalities of industrial capitalism.

Key Socialist Beliefs

• Collective ownership of the means of production
• Redistribution of wealth
• Rejection of laissez-faire capitalism
• Emphasis on equality and cooperation

Early thinkers like Robert Owen and Henri de Saint-Simon promoted utopian socialism, advocating for peaceful cooperation between classes and the creation of ideal communities.

But over time, socialism evolved into a scientific critique of capitalism, especially with the rise of:

Marxism: Class Conflict and Revolution

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels introduced a new theory of socialism in The Communist Manifesto (1848), arguing that:

• They believed capitalism would inevitably collapse due to tensions between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
• The working class, once conscious of its exploitation, would lead a violent revolution, abolish private property, and establish a classless, communist society.

Marxism became the most influential branch of socialism in the late 19th century, especially among radical labor movements and future revolutionaries.

Anarchism: The Rejection of the State

Anarchists took the critique of government one step further. They believed:

• All forms of government are inherently oppressive.
• Society should be based on voluntary cooperation and mutual aid.

Notable Anarchists

• Mikhail Bakunin: Advocated collectivist anarchism, arguing both the state and private property should be abolished.
• Georges Sorel: Believed violence was necessary to spark revolutionary consciousness among workers.

Anarchism wasn’t just theoretical. Some anarchists turned to direct action and political violence**,** including the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881, which triggered a wave of repression in Russia.

Feminism: The Struggle for Gender Equality

The Industrial and French Revolutions inspired women to demand the same rights being won by men. Feminists:

• Demanded universal suffrage (not just for men)
• Rejected the Cult of Domesticity and traditional gender roles
• Called for access to education, legal equality, and property rights

Flora Tristan

• A French writer and early feminist-socialist
• Authored The Workers' Union (1843), linking the progress of women’s rights with the broader working-class movement
• Argued that equality for women was essential for the success of any social reform

Comparing the “-Isms”

| Liberalism | John Stuart Mill, Jeremy Bentham | Civil liberties, constitutional government, individual rights | | Radicalism | Chartists, suffragists | Universal male suffrage, expanded democracy | | Socialism | Robert Owen, Saint-Simon | Cooperative society, wealth redistribution | | Marxism | Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels | Class struggle, abolition of capitalism | | Feminism | Flora Tristan, Clara Zetkin | Gender equality, universal suffrage | | Anarchism | Bakunin, Sorel | Stateless society, anti-authoritarianism |

Why It Matters

The intellectual ferment of 1815–1914 reshaped political and social thought in Europe. Though not all these movements were successful in their time, they challenged the dominance of conservative monarchies and planted the seeds for:

• Expanded suffrage
• Labor protections
• Socialist and communist revolutions
• Women’s rights activism
• National independence movements