9.2 Nationalism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
3 min read•july 24, 2024
Soviet and Eastern European nationalism evolved dramatically from 1917 to 1991. Initially, Lenin's policies promoted ethnic autonomy, but Stalin later suppressed non-Russian cultures. Post-Stalin, limited liberalization occurred, yet russification persisted in Soviet republics and satellite states.
Gorbachev's reforms unintentionally fueled nationalist movements. As the USSR weakened, independence movements gained momentum in the Baltics and other republics. The Soviet collapse led to peaceful revolutions in Eastern Europe and new challenges in nation-building and ethnic conflicts.
Soviet and Eastern European Nationalism
Evolution of nationalist sentiments
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- Early Soviet period (1917-1930s)
- Lenin's nationality policy granted right of nations to led to creation of ethnic republics and autonomous regions (Uzbek SSR, Tatar ASSR)
- policy promoted local languages and cultures fostered development of national elites in non-Russian areas
- Stalinist era (1930s-1953)
- Shifted towards Russian-centric policies suppressed non-Russian cultures
- Forced collectivization and industrialization disrupted traditional societies
- Deportation of ethnic groups uprooted entire populations (Crimean Tatars, Chechens)
- Post-Stalin period (1953-1985)
- under Khrushchev allowed limited cultural expression
- Limited cultural liberalization permitted some national traditions to resurface
- Continued russification policies imposed Russian language in education and administration
- Satellite states in Eastern Europe
- Imposition of Soviet-style systems eroded local traditions and governance
- Suppression of local nationalist movements crushed uprisings (Hungarian Revolution 1956, 1968)
- Rise of dissident movements challenged Soviet control ( in Poland)
Rise of dissident nationalist movements
- Economic stagnation and shortages fueled discontent with Soviet system
- Cultural repression and russification policies sparked resistance among non-Russian populations
- Environmental concerns galvanized public opposition (Chernobyl disaster 1986)
- Intellectual dissent spread through samizdat underground publications
- Religious persecution strengthened role of churches as centers of resistance (Catholic Church in Poland, Orthodox Church in Russia)
- Human rights violations exposed by Helsinki Accords (1975) increased international pressure
- Generational shift led to youth dissatisfaction with Soviet system
- Influence of Western media and culture penetrated Iron Curtain through radio broadcasts and smuggled materials
Impact of glasnost and perestroika
- relaxed censorship allowed public discussion of previously taboo topics (historical grievances, ethnic conflicts)
- introduced economic reforms and political liberalization weakened central control
- Unintended consequences emboldened nationalist movements and exposed systemic weaknesses
- Baltic independence movements gained momentum ( in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania)
- Nagorno-Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan erupted into open hostilities
- Nationalist parties in Soviet republics gained popular support and political influence
- Central control over Eastern European satellites weakened (Roundtable talks in Poland, Fall of the Berlin Wall)
Nationalism in Soviet collapse
- Dissolution of the Soviet Union
- (1991) failed attempt to preserve USSR
- Soviet republics declared independence
- (CIS) formed as loose association
- Peaceful revolutions in Eastern Europe overthrew communist regimes (Solidarity in Poland, in Czechoslovakia)
- Ethnic conflicts erupted in post-Soviet space (, )
- Nation-building challenges emerged:
- Defining citizenship and language policies to integrate diverse populations
- Economic transition difficulties as countries moved from planned to market economies
- Ethnonationalism led to Yugoslavia's violent breakup into separate states
- National identities redefined through de-Sovietization efforts and revival of pre-Soviet traditions and symbols
- Newly independent states sought international recognition and integration (UN membership, NATO and EU expansion eastward)
Key Terms to Review (26)
August Coup: The August Coup was an attempted coup d'état in the Soviet Union that took place from August 19 to August 21, 1991, orchestrated by hardline members of the Communist Party who opposed the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev. This pivotal event was a reaction against the rising nationalist movements within the Soviet republics and marked a significant turning point in the dissolution of the Soviet Union, as it ultimately accelerated the push for independence among these nations.
Civic Nationalism: Civic nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes shared citizenship, legal equality, and a commitment to a common set of political values and institutions, rather than ethnicity or culture. It focuses on the rights and responsibilities of individuals within a nation-state, fostering a sense of belonging based on civic participation and democratic governance.
Commonwealth of Independent States: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional organization formed in 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which aims to promote cooperation and coordination among its member states. The CIS facilitates economic, political, and cultural ties among the former Soviet republics, while also addressing issues like security and trade, reflecting the complex landscape of nationalism in post-Soviet Eastern Europe.
Cultural revival: Cultural revival refers to a resurgence of interest and pride in a particular culture, often occurring as a response to colonialism, globalization, or societal changes. This phenomenon can manifest in various forms, such as the revival of traditional languages, customs, art, and practices, and is closely linked to movements that seek to reclaim identity and heritage, particularly in contexts where cultures have been marginalized or oppressed.
De-stalinization: De-stalinization refers to the political process of eliminating the influence of Joseph Stalin from the Soviet Union and its satellite states, particularly after his death in 1953. This period saw the dismantling of Stalin's oppressive policies, including the extensive use of terror and repression, which had characterized his regime. The movement aimed to promote a more humane and open form of governance, allowing for some degree of national identity and cultural expression among the various Soviet republics and Eastern European nations.
Ethnic conflict: Ethnic conflict refers to disputes and tensions between different ethnic groups, often arising from historical grievances, competition for resources, and struggles for political power or autonomy. These conflicts can lead to violence, discrimination, and even genocide as groups seek to assert their identity or achieve self-determination. In many cases, ethnic conflict is fueled by nationalism, as groups push for recognition and rights within larger political entities.
Ethnic nationalism: Ethnic nationalism is a form of nationalism where the nation is defined in terms of shared ethnicity, culture, language, and common ancestry, often prioritizing the interests and identity of a specific ethnic group. This type of nationalism can lead to strong feelings of belonging among members of the ethnic group but may also result in exclusion or discrimination against those outside the group.
Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: The Georgian-Abkhaz conflict refers to the ongoing political and territorial dispute between the Republic of Georgia and the self-declared Republic of Abkhazia, which declared independence in the early 1990s after a violent war. This conflict is deeply rooted in issues of nationalism, ethnic identity, and the legacy of Soviet administrative boundaries, significantly impacting regional dynamics in Eastern Europe.
Glasnost: Glasnost, meaning 'openness' in Russian, was a policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s aimed at increasing transparency and freedom of information in the Soviet Union. This initiative allowed for greater public discussion and criticism of government actions, which significantly influenced the atmosphere of nationalism within the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, encouraging citizens to express their grievances and aspirations more freely than before.
Irredentism: Irredentism is a political principle or policy advocating for the restoration of territory that an ethnic group considers to be historically or culturally theirs, but which is currently under the control of another state. This concept often fuels nationalism and can lead to conflicts as groups seek to reclaim lands associated with their identity, frequently manifesting in scenarios where historical grievances and ethnic ties are invoked to justify territorial claims.
Korenizatsiya: Korenizatsiya, which translates to 'indigenization', refers to a policy implemented in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s aimed at promoting local cultures and languages within various Soviet republics. This policy was part of a broader strategy to foster nationalism and build a sense of allegiance among non-Russian ethnic groups while also consolidating the power of the Communist Party. While initially appearing to empower local identities, korenizatsiya often served the dual purpose of ensuring Soviet control over diverse populations by incorporating local leaders into the Communist framework.
Mikhail Gorbachev: Mikhail Gorbachev was the last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the first and only President of the Soviet Union, serving from 1985 until its dissolution in 1991. He is best known for his policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), which aimed to reform the Soviet political and economic systems, ultimately leading to significant changes in Eastern Europe and the rise of nationalist movements within the Soviet Union.
National fragmentation: National fragmentation refers to the process where a single national entity breaks apart into smaller, often ethnically or culturally distinct groups, leading to the creation of new nations or the reorganization of existing ones. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in contexts where diverse ethnicities, languages, and cultural identities coexist, resulting in tensions and conflicts that can challenge the unity of a state. In the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, national fragmentation manifested through the emergence of nationalist movements that sought independence or greater autonomy from centralized authorities.
National Identity: National identity refers to a person's sense of belonging to a particular nation, characterized by shared culture, language, history, and values. It plays a crucial role in shaping individual and collective experiences, influencing how communities perceive themselves and their relationship with others.
National sovereignty: National sovereignty refers to the authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions independently, without external interference. This concept is fundamental in establishing a nation's autonomy and is often linked to issues of self-determination, territorial integrity, and political independence.
Perestroika: Perestroika, which means 'restructuring' in Russian, was a political movement initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s aimed at reforming the Soviet Union's economic and political system. It sought to introduce elements of market economics and decentralization to combat stagnation and inefficiency within the Soviet economy, ultimately allowing for more openness and political liberalization. This movement had profound implications for nationalism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, as it inadvertently sparked demands for greater autonomy and independence among various national groups.
Prague Spring: The Prague Spring refers to a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the spring of 1968, characterized by attempts to create a more democratic government and greater freedoms within the Communist regime. This movement aimed to establish 'socialism with a human face,' and it became a symbol of nationalist aspirations in Eastern Europe, challenging Soviet authority and inspiring similar movements in other satellite states.
Self-determination: Self-determination is the principle that allows nations and peoples to determine their own political status and pursue their own economic, social, and cultural development. This concept is often tied to the struggles of various groups for autonomy, independence, and recognition, particularly in the context of historical and contemporary nationalist movements.
Separatism: Separatism is a political movement advocating for the independence or autonomy of a particular group, often based on ethnic, cultural, or religious identity, from a larger political entity. This concept frequently emerges in contexts where distinct national identities clash with existing state structures, leading to demands for self-determination and governance. It can manifest in various forms, including peaceful negotiations for autonomy or violent uprisings aimed at establishing an independent state.
Singing revolution: The singing revolution refers to the peaceful movement in Estonia from 1987 to 1991, where citizens gathered to express their national identity and desire for independence from Soviet rule through song and cultural events. This unique form of protest showcased the power of music and collective spirit in mobilizing a nation towards freedom, highlighting the role of nationalism in the broader context of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.
Solidarity: Solidarity refers to the unity and mutual support among individuals or groups, particularly in the context of shared goals or interests. It often manifests in social movements, national identity, and collective action, creating a sense of belonging and shared purpose among members of a community. In the context of the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, solidarity played a crucial role in shaping national identities and collective resistance against oppression.
The Baltic Way: The Baltic Way was a peaceful political demonstration that took place on August 23, 1989, where approximately two million people joined hands to form a human chain spanning over 600 kilometers across the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. This event symbolized the united desire for independence from Soviet rule and became a powerful expression of nationalism in the region.
Ukrainian National Movement: The Ukrainian National Movement refers to the collective efforts and political activities aimed at achieving national identity, autonomy, and independence for Ukraine throughout its history. This movement gained momentum during the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in response to foreign domination by empires such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, and has played a crucial role in shaping modern Ukrainian identity and statehood.
Vaclav Havel: Vaclav Havel was a prominent Czech playwright, dissident, and politician who became the first President of the Czech Republic after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe. His leadership symbolized a shift towards democratic governance and human rights in a region that had been dominated by totalitarian regimes, making him an influential figure in the broader narrative of nationalism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.
Velvet Revolution: The Velvet Revolution refers to the non-violent transition of power in Czechoslovakia from a communist regime to a parliamentary democracy that took place between November 1989 and February 1990. This peaceful uprising was characterized by mass protests, the emergence of civil society, and a desire for greater political freedom, highlighting the broader trends of nationalism and democratization in Eastern Europe during the late 20th century.
War in Transnistria: The War in Transnistria was a conflict that occurred from 1990 to 1992 between Moldova and the self-proclaimed Republic of Transnistria, which sought independence from Moldova following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This war highlighted the complex interplay of nationalism and ethnic identity in post-Soviet states, as Transnistria's population was predominantly Russian and Ukrainian, contrasting with Moldova's Romanian cultural roots.