1.2 Rise of Octavian/Augustus
8 min read•august 21, 2024
's rise from to emperor shaped Rome's artistic landscape. His background and experiences influenced the cultural policies and building programs that defined the Augustan era. This transformation marked a pivotal moment in Roman history and art.
The period saw new artistic styles and architectural innovations reflecting Augustan ideology. Augustus's extensive building projects, cultural patronage, and propaganda efforts created a visual language that celebrated peace, prosperity, and Roman values, influencing imperial imagery for generations.
Early life and career
- Octavian's rise to power shaped the artistic and architectural landscape of Augustan Rome
- His early experiences and connections influenced his later cultural policies and building programs
- Understanding Octavian's background provides context for the artistic themes prevalent in Augustan art and monuments
Family background
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- Born Gaius Octavius in 63 BCE to a wealthy equestrian family from Velitrae
- Maternal great-nephew of Julius Caesar, later adopted as Caesar's heir
- Family connections provided access to education and political opportunities
- Mother Atia and stepfather Lucius Marcius Philippus influenced his early development
Military experience
- Joined Julius Caesar's military campaigns at a young age
- Gained firsthand knowledge of Roman military tactics and leadership
- Served in Hispania, learning about provincial administration
- Military background later influenced his portrayal in art as a skilled commander
Alliance with Julius Caesar
- Formed a close relationship with Julius Caesar during his teenage years
- Accompanied Caesar on various campaigns, including to Hispania in 45 BCE
- Named as Caesar's heir in his will, cementing Octavian's political future
- Alliance with Caesar provided legitimacy and support for Octavian's later claims to power
Civil war and power struggle
- Period of intense conflict shaped Octavian's political strategies and public image
- Civil war's aftermath influenced the themes of peace and stability in Augustan art
- Power struggles with rivals informed Octavian's later approach to consolidating authority
Conflict with Mark Antony
- Rivalry began after Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE
- Competed for control of Caesar's legacy and political support
- Engaged in propaganda campaigns against each other
- Conflict culminated in the formation of the
Second Triumvirate
- Political alliance formed in 43 BCE between Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus
- Divided control of Roman territories among the three men
- Conducted proscriptions to eliminate political opponents and raise funds
- Alliance eventually broke down due to personal ambitions and rivalries
Battle of Actium
- Decisive naval battle fought in 31 BCE off the coast of Greece
- Octavian's forces, led by , defeated the combined fleets of Antony and Cleopatra
- Victory solidified Octavian's control over the Roman world
- Battle became a central theme in Augustan propaganda and artistic representations
Transformation to Augustus
- Octavian's transformation into Augustus marked a pivotal moment in Roman history and art
- This period saw the establishment of new artistic styles and architectural programs
- Augustus's image and ideology became central themes in Roman visual culture
Constitutional settlement
- Occurred in 27 BCE, establishing the foundations of the Principate
- Octavian formally restored power to the Senate and People of Rome
- Retained control through various powers and offices granted by the Senate
- Created a facade of republican government while consolidating personal authority
Titles and honors
- Awarded the honorific title "Augustus" by the Senate in 27 BCE
- Accumulated various titles and powers (, )
- Refused the title of dictator, presenting himself as primus inter pares (first among equals)
- Titles and honors reflected in inscriptions and artistic representations throughout the empire
Augustan ideology
- Promoted concepts of peace, prosperity, and moral renewal
- Emphasized restoration of traditional Roman values ()
- Cultivated an image of himself as the savior and protector of Rome
- Ideology manifested in art, literature, and architecture of the Augustan period
Augustan building program
- Augustus's extensive building projects transformed the physical landscape of Rome
- Architectural innovations reflected the ideological themes of the Augustan era
- Building program served to legitimize Augustus's rule and showcase Roman power
Forum of Augustus
- Constructed between 42 BCE and 2 BCE, adjacent to the Forum of Caesar
- Centered around the (Mars the Avenger)
- Incorporated statues of Roman heroes and Augustus's ancestors
- Architectural design emphasized themes of Roman military glory and divine favor
Ara Pacis
- Altar of Peace dedicated in 9 BCE to celebrate Augustus's return from Gaul and Hispania
- Decorated with intricate relief sculptures depicting Roman mythology and imperial family
- Symbolized the peace and prosperity of the Augustan age
- Blended elements of Hellenistic and Roman artistic styles
Temple of Apollo Palatine
- Built on the Palatine Hill and dedicated in 28 BCE
- Connected to Augustus's private residence, emphasizing his close relationship with Apollo
- Housed important state documents and Augustus's private library
- Architectural design and decoration reinforced Augustus's claims to divine favor
Cultural and artistic patronage
- Augustus actively supported and influenced the development of Roman culture
- His patronage shaped the artistic and literary output of the era
- Augustan cultural policies aimed to promote Roman values and imperial ideology
Literature and poetry
- Supported prominent writers such as , , and
- Encouraged works that celebrated Roman history and values (Virgil's )
- Patronage of literature helped create a distinctly Roman literary tradition
- Some works subtly critiqued or commented on Augustan policies (Ovid's )
Visual arts
- Promoted the development of a new, classicizing style in Roman art
- Encouraged the creation of imperial portraits that emphasized dignity and idealization
- Supported the production of historical reliefs depicting Roman triumphs and rituals
- Patronized the creation of monumental sculptures celebrating Roman achievements
Augustan classicism
- Developed a distinctive artistic style blending Greek and Roman elements
- Emphasized harmony, balance, and idealization in sculpture and architecture
- Incorporated symbolic imagery related to Augustan ideology and propaganda
- Influenced artistic production throughout the Roman Empire for generations
Imperial administration
- Augustus's administrative reforms had a lasting impact on Roman governance
- His policies shaped the physical and social landscape of Rome and its provinces
- Administrative changes influenced the artistic representation of imperial power
Provincial governance
- Divided provinces into imperial and senatorial categories
- Appointed governors and implemented standardized administrative practices
- Established a more efficient tax collection system
- Created a network of roads and infrastructure to facilitate communication and trade
Military reforms
- Reorganized the Roman army into a professional standing force
- Established the Praetorian Guard as his personal bodyguard and elite military unit
- Created a system of military retirement and land grants for veterans
- Military reforms reflected in artistic depictions of Roman soldiers and triumphs
Economic policies
- Standardized coinage and weights throughout the empire
- Encouraged trade and economic development in the provinces
- Implemented public works projects to improve infrastructure and create jobs
- Economic stability contributed to the flourishing of art and architecture during his reign
Dynastic succession
- Augustus's efforts to secure his legacy influenced artistic representations of the imperial family
- Succession plans shaped the political and cultural landscape of Rome for generations
- Dynastic imagery became a key component of imperial propaganda
Heirs and adoptions
- Adopted his stepson Tiberius as heir after the deaths of other potential successors
- Utilized adoption as a tool for creating a stable line of succession
- Promoted the careers and public images of potential heirs through art and coinage
- Succession plans reflected in dynastic groupings in sculpture and relief art
Julio-Claudian dynasty
- Established the foundations for the Julio-Claudian imperial dynasty
- Connected the Julian and Claudian family lines through strategic marriages and adoptions
- Created a sense of dynastic continuity in artistic representations of the imperial family
- Julio-Claudian imagery emphasized themes of divine favor and imperial legitimacy
Legacy and deification
- Deified after his death in 14 CE, becoming Divus Augustus
- Established precedent for worship throughout the Roman Empire
- Legacy celebrated in art and architecture long after his death
- Deification influenced the representation of subsequent emperors in Roman art
Augustan propaganda
- Augustus utilized various forms of media to promote his image and ideology
- Propaganda efforts shaped the visual language of Roman imperial art
- Artistic themes and symbols developed during this period influenced later imperial imagery
Imagery and symbolism
- Developed a rich visual language to communicate Augustan ideology
- Utilized symbols such as the laurel wreath, oak crown, and capricorn zodiac sign
- Incorporated imagery related to Roman deities (Apollo, Venus) to reinforce divine connections
- Created a standardized imperial portrait type emphasizing youth, dignity, and idealization
Coinage and inscriptions
- Used coinage as a medium for disseminating imperial imagery and messages
- Implemented standardized coin designs featuring Augustus's portrait and titles
- Employed inscriptions on public monuments to commemorate achievements and honors
- Coinage and inscriptions served as portable propaganda throughout the empire
Imperial cult
- Established foundations for emperor worship in the provinces
- Encouraged the construction of temples and altars dedicated to Roma and Augustus
- Utilized cult practices to reinforce loyalty to the emperor and Roman state
- Imperial cult imagery became a prominent feature in provincial art and architecture
Impact on Roman society
- Augustus's reign brought significant changes to Roman social and cultural life
- His policies and ideology influenced artistic production and religious practices
- The Augustan era set the stage for the development of Roman imperial culture
Social reforms
- Implemented laws to encourage marriage and childbearing among the elite
- Promoted traditional Roman values and morality
- Established a more defined social hierarchy with the equestrian and senatorial orders
- Social reforms reflected in artistic depictions of Roman family life and social roles
Religious revival
- Restored and renovated temples throughout Rome
- Revived ancient religious ceremonies and priesthoods
- Emphasized his role as Pontifex Maximus (chief priest) after 12 BCE
- Religious revival influenced the themes and subjects of Roman art and architecture
Pax Romana
- Established a period of relative peace and stability known as the
- Created conditions for economic prosperity and cultural flourishing
- Enabled the spread of Roman art and architecture throughout the empire
- Pax Romana became a central theme in Augustan propaganda and artistic representations
Key Terms to Review (28)
Aeneid: The Aeneid is an epic poem written by the Roman poet Virgil, telling the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero who journeys to Italy to become the ancestor of the Romans. This work connects deeply with themes of fate, duty, and the divine, making it a cornerstone of Roman literature and culture that reflects significant historical and cultural moments in Roman history.
Allegorical Sculpture: Allegorical sculpture refers to three-dimensional artworks that symbolize or represent abstract ideas, concepts, or moral qualities through personification. This form of art was used during the rise of Octavian/Augustus to convey messages about power, virtue, and divine favor, often depicting deities or personified virtues to reinforce the emperor's authority and ideals.
Ara Pacis: The Ara Pacis, or Altar of Peace, is a monumental altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace, and was commissioned by the Roman Senate in 13 BCE to honor Augustus's return from Spain and Gaul. This structure is not only an important piece of propaganda celebrating peace and prosperity but also embodies Augustan ideology, reflecting the social, political, and cultural transformations during his reign.
Augustan Classicism: Augustan Classicism refers to a cultural and artistic movement in Rome during the reign of Emperor Augustus that aimed to revive the ideals of classical Greek art and literature, promoting harmony, balance, and ideal beauty. This movement sought to establish a new aesthetic that celebrated Rome's power and stability while connecting it with the revered traditions of ancient Greece, influencing various aspects of Roman art, architecture, and public representation.
Augustan Moral Legislation: Augustan moral legislation refers to a series of laws enacted by Emperor Augustus aimed at promoting traditional Roman values, strengthening family structures, and addressing issues of morality in Roman society. These laws included measures that encouraged marriage and childbearing while penalizing adultery and other forms of moral decay, reflecting Augustus's desire to restore the moral fabric of Rome during his rise to power.
Augustus: Augustus was the first Roman emperor, who ruled from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He transformed the Roman Republic into a stable autocracy, establishing a new political system known as the Principate, which centralized power while maintaining the facade of the old Republic. His reign marked significant social, political, and architectural advancements that shaped Rome’s future.
Battle of Actium: The Battle of Actium was a decisive naval confrontation that occurred in 31 BCE between the forces of Octavian and those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. This pivotal battle marked the end of the Roman Republic and set the stage for Octavian’s rise to power, leading to the establishment of the Roman Empire.
Classical realism: Classical realism is an artistic style that emphasizes realistic representation of subjects in a naturalistic manner, particularly in sculpture and painting. This approach reflects a return to the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art, focusing on proportion, perspective, and human anatomy to convey a sense of beauty and harmony. Classical realism plays a vital role in shaping the visual culture of Rome during the rise of Octavian/Augustus, marking a significant shift in how power and identity were portrayed in public monuments.
Forum of Augustus: The Forum of Augustus is an ancient public space built in Rome by Emperor Augustus around 2 BCE, designed as a monumental complex to showcase his achievements and reinforce his political power. This forum was strategically positioned adjacent to the Forum of Julius Caesar, symbolizing the continuity and legitimacy of Augustus' rule following the fall of the Roman Republic.
Horace: Horace was a prominent Roman poet during the time of Augustus, best known for his lyrical poetry and his contributions to the development of Roman literature. His works reflect the cultural and political transformations occurring in Rome as Augustus rose to power, capturing themes of love, friendship, and the appreciation of life's fleeting moments while also subtly promoting the ideals of the Augustan regime.
Imperator: Imperator is a Latin term that originally meant 'commander' and was used in the Roman Republic to denote a military leader who had achieved a significant victory. The title gained prominence during the rise of Octavian, later known as Augustus, as it became associated with his authority and power, marking the transition from Republic to Empire. As Augustus established his rule, 'imperator' became an integral part of the imperial title, symbolizing both military command and the broader notion of sovereign power.
Imperial Cult: The imperial cult refers to the practice of worshiping the emperors and their families as divine figures within the context of ancient Roman religion. This cult emerged during the rise of Augustus and played a crucial role in establishing imperial authority and legitimizing the emperor's rule, blending political power with religious devotion and community cohesion.
Imperium maius: Imperium maius refers to the greater power or authority granted to certain officials in ancient Rome, specifically allowing them to command troops and govern provinces beyond the normal limits of their office. This term is closely associated with the political and military reforms implemented during the rise of Octavian, later known as Augustus, as he consolidated power and established himself as the leading figure of the Roman state. The concept played a crucial role in Augustus's ability to manage both military affairs and administrative governance effectively.
Livia Drusilla: Livia Drusilla was the wife of Augustus and played a significant role in the political landscape of early Imperial Rome. As a powerful and influential figure, she was not only the mother of Tiberius but also acted as a key advisor to Augustus, helping shape his policies and public image. Her status and connections made her an essential part of the imperial family, which she helped to solidify through her own political maneuvers.
Marcus Agrippa: Marcus Agrippa was a prominent Roman general and statesman who played a crucial role in the rise of Octavian, later known as Augustus. He was instrumental in military victories, particularly the Battle of Actium, and was a close friend and advisor to Augustus, helping to shape the political landscape of early Imperial Rome. Agrippa also significantly contributed to the architectural transformation of the city through various building projects.
Mausoleum of Augustus: The Mausoleum of Augustus is a monumental tomb built by Emperor Augustus in 28 BCE to honor himself and his family, marking a pivotal shift in Roman funerary architecture and imperial propaganda. Its construction symbolized the rise of Augustus, serving as a statement of his power while also becoming an integral part of Rome's urban landscape. The mausoleum not only housed the remains of Augustus but also became a prominent feature in the monumentalization of the city, influencing subsequent structures that celebrated imperial legacy and authority.
Metamorphoses: Metamorphoses refers to transformative changes or transformations, often implying a significant alteration in form or nature. In the context of Roman history, particularly during the reign of Augustus, this term symbolizes the profound shifts in political power, social order, and cultural identity as Rome transitioned from a republic to an imperial state. It encapsulates how individuals, societies, and even monuments were transformed under Augustus's influence.
Mos maiorum: Mos maiorum refers to the traditional customs, values, and practices of the ancestors of ancient Rome. It embodies the unwritten code of conduct that guided Roman society, influencing everything from social behavior to political decisions. This concept was especially significant during the rise of Octavian/Augustus, as it shaped the moral framework that Augustus sought to restore and promote as he consolidated his power and transformed the Roman state.
Octavian: Octavian, later known as Augustus, was the first Roman emperor who played a crucial role in transforming the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. His rise to power marked a significant shift in Roman politics, as he effectively ended the Republic's centuries-old political system and established autocratic rule while maintaining the façade of republican traditions.
Ovid: Ovid was a prominent Roman poet known for his works that significantly shaped Roman literature during the time of Augustus. His poetry often explored themes of love, transformation, and mythology, with a unique style that combined humor and elegance. As a contemporary of Augustus, Ovid's works reflect the cultural and political environment of the early Roman Empire, providing insight into the societal norms and values of the Pax Romana period.
Pantheon: The Pantheon is a monumental temple in Rome, originally built to honor all the gods of Ancient Rome. It stands as a prime example of Roman architecture, symbolizing the merging of religious and civic life during the Augustan era, reflecting the cultural renaissance and innovative building techniques that characterized this period.
Pax Romana: Pax Romana, meaning 'Roman Peace,' refers to a 200-year period of relative stability and prosperity across the Roman Empire that began with the reign of Augustus in 27 BCE and lasted until around 180 CE. This era is characterized by reduced military expansion, a flourishing economy, and significant advancements in arts and culture, which are critical to understanding the transformation of Rome during and after the establishment of the imperial system.
Princeps: The term 'princeps' refers to the title used by Roman emperors that translates to 'first citizen' or 'leading citizen.' This designation emphasized the emperor's role as a leader among equals in the Roman Republic, allowing him to maintain a facade of republican values while wielding significant power. The title established the emperor's authority and served as a central aspect of the political culture during the transition from Republic to Empire.
Second Triumvirate: The Second Triumvirate was a political alliance formed in 43 BCE by three prominent Roman leaders: Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. This coalition was created to restore order and consolidate power after the assassination of Julius Caesar, effectively marking a pivotal moment in the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. The Second Triumvirate had significant implications for the political landscape of Rome, leading to civil war and the eventual rise of Octavian as Augustus.
Temple of Apollo Palatine: The Temple of Apollo Palatine was a significant religious structure built by Augustus on the Palatine Hill in Rome, dedicated to the god Apollo. This temple represented both a personal and political statement, symbolizing Augustus’ divine favor and his connection to the god associated with healing and prophecy, which he used to legitimize his rule. The temple's construction marked a pivotal moment in the rise of Augustus as it illustrated his commitment to the gods and reinforced his image as a leader chosen by divine forces.
Temple of Mars Ultor: The Temple of Mars Ultor was a temple in Rome dedicated to the avenging aspect of Mars, built by Augustus in the Forum of Augustus. It served not only as a religious site but also as a monument celebrating Augustus's victory over his enemies, embodying the political propaganda and ideologies of the Augustan regime.
Tribunicia potestas: Tribunicia potestas, or 'tribunician power,' refers to the authority held by Roman tribunes that protected the rights of the plebeians against patrician domination. This power was a significant tool for political influence in the Roman Republic and later became an essential aspect of Augustus' rule, symbolizing his connection to the people and his legislative authority.
Virgil: Virgil was a Roman poet best known for his epic poem, the 'Aeneid,' which tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero and ancestor of the Romans. His work is deeply connected to the themes of national identity and the glorification of Rome during the Pax Romana, reflecting the cultural renaissance initiated by Octavian/Augustus and showcasing a synthesis of Greek and Roman styles in literature and art.