1.3 Establishment of the Principate
7 min read•august 21, 2024
transformed Rome from Republic to Empire, reshaping its political landscape. This shift laid the foundation for Augustan art and monuments, reflecting the new power structure and influencing artistic themes for centuries.
The Principate established a legal framework that maintained a Republican façade while centralizing power. This balance of tradition and innovation shaped the iconography and symbolism used in imperial monuments and public spaces throughout Rome.
Origins of the Principate
- Marks a pivotal transition in Roman history from the Republic to the Empire, fundamentally reshaping Rome's political landscape
- Establishes the foundation for the art and monuments of Augustan Rome, reflecting the new imperial power structure
- Influences artistic themes and architectural styles for centuries to come, setting precedents for imperial imagery
End of Roman Republic
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- Civil wars and political instability erode traditional Republican institutions
- Emergence of powerful military leaders (Marius, Sulla, Caesar) challenge senatorial authority
- Assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE triggers final collapse of Republican system
- Triumvirate of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus divides Roman territories
Octavian's rise to power
- Adopts name "Caesar" after being named Julius Caesar's heir, gaining popularity among troops
- Forms Second Triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus, consolidating power
- Gradually outmaneuvers political rivals through strategic alliances and propaganda
- Portrays himself as defender of Roman traditions against Mark Antony's "eastern" influences
- Accumulates unprecedented combination of offices and honors from Senate
Battle of Actium
- Decisive naval battle in 31 BCE between Octavian and Mark Antony's forces
- Fought off the coast of Greece, resulting in decisive victory for Octavian
- Mark Antony and Cleopatra flee to Egypt, later committing suicide
- Octavian gains control over Egypt's vast wealth and resources
- Marks the end of civil wars and beginning of Octavian's sole rule
Constitutional framework
- Establishes the legal and political structure of the new imperial system while maintaining Republican façade
- Influences the artistic representation of power in Augustan Rome, balancing traditional and innovative elements
- Shapes the iconography and symbolism used in imperial monuments and public spaces
Powers of the princeps
- maius grants supreme command over all provinces and legions
- Tribunicia potestas provides veto power and personal inviolability
- Pontifex Maximus role gives control over state religion
- Awarded title of Augustus, elevating status above other citizens
- Accumulates various Republican offices and honors (consul, censor)
Senate's role under Augustus
- Retains formal authority but loses real decision-making power
- Membership expanded and purged to ensure loyalty to the princeps
- Continues to debate and pass legislation, but under Augustus' influence
- Granted administration of peaceful provinces (senatorial provinces)
- Bestows honors and titles on the emperor, legitimizing his position
Republican institutions vs Principate
- Consuls and other magistrates continue to be elected, but with reduced authority
- Popular assemblies still meet but have diminished legislative role
- Princeps assumes many functions previously divided among multiple offices
- Creation of new imperial offices (prefects, procurators) bypasses traditional cursus honorum
- Maintenance of Republican forms provides continuity and legitimacy to new system
Augustan propaganda
- Utilizes various media to promote Augustus' image and legitimize his rule
- Shapes the visual language of imperial power in Roman art and architecture
- Establishes artistic conventions that persist throughout the imperial period
Visual imagery in art
- Portraits of Augustus emphasize youth, dignity, and divine association
- Prima Porta statue depicts Augustus as imperator with divine symbolism
- Coins feature Augustus' image and titles, circulating propaganda empire-wide
- Relief sculptures narrate Augustus' achievements and virtues ()
- showcases complex iconography of imperial power
Literary patronage
- Supports and influences writers like Virgil, Horace, and Livy
- Aeneid by Virgil links Augustus to Rome's mythical founding
- Horace's poetry promotes Augustan moral and social values
- Livy's history emphasizes Rome's greatness and Augustus' role in its destiny
- Patronage system ensures favorable portrayal of Augustan regime in literature
Imperial cult development
- Deification of Julius Caesar sets precedent for emperor worship
- Augustus allows cult of his genius (divine spirit) in provinces
- Establishes cult of Roma et Augustus, linking emperor to personification of Rome
- Encourages association with gods (Apollo, Mars Ultor) without claiming divinity
- Lays groundwork for future imperial deification after death
Administrative reforms
- Restructures Roman governance to centralize power and improve efficiency
- Influences the distribution and design of administrative buildings in Rome and provinces
- Creates new architectural needs for imperial bureaucracy and military organization
Provincial governance changes
- Division of provinces into imperial and senatorial categories
- Appointment of legates and procurators directly responsible to Augustus
- Implementation of regular census and taxation systems
- Establishment of Roman colonies to spread Roman culture and control
- Creation of new provinces to better manage expanding empire (Egypt, Gaul)
Military reorganization
- Creation of standing professional army with fixed terms of service
- Establishment of Praetorian Guard as emperor's personal security force
- Division of legions into smaller, more flexible units
- Implementation of military pension system (aerarium militare)
- Standardization of equipment and training across the empire
Financial innovations
- Creation of imperial treasury (fiscus) separate from state treasury (aerarium)
- Introduction of new taxes (inheritance tax, sales tax) to fund military
- Establishment of imperial mints to control coinage
- Development of complex budgeting system for imperial expenses
- Creation of fire and police services in Rome (vigiles)
Social and moral policies
- Aims to restore traditional Roman values and social order
- Influences themes in Augustan art, emphasizing family, piety, and Roman virtues
- Shapes the iconography used in public monuments and religious buildings
Marriage laws
- Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus encourages marriage and childbearing
- Penalties for unmarried or childless citizens of certain classes
- Rewards for families with multiple children (ius trium liberorum)
- Restrictions on marriage between social classes
- Criminalization of adultery through Lex Julia de adulteriis coercendis
Religious revival
- Restoration and construction of temples throughout Rome
- Revival of ancient priesthoods and religious ceremonies
- Promotion of Roman gods and traditional cults
- Integration of emperor into religious life through various priesthoods
- Suppression of foreign cults perceived as threats to Roman tradition
Class structure modifications
- Formalization of equestrian order as imperial administrative class
- Creation of new patrician families to replenish elite ranks
- Restrictions on manumission to control growth of citizen population
- Encouragement of traditional elite pursuits (military service, public office)
- Implementation of sumptuary laws regulating luxury and display
Architectural transformations
- Reflects Augustus' claim to have found Rome brick and left it marble
- Establishes new architectural styles and techniques that define imperial Roman architecture
- Creates monumental spaces that serve both practical and propagandistic functions
Forum of Augustus
- Built to rival existing Roman Forum, showcasing imperial power
- Temple of Mars Ultor serves as centerpiece, fulfilling Augustus' vow
- Colonnades house statues of Roman heroes, linking Augustus to Roman history
- Exedrae contain statues of Aeneas and Romulus, emphasizing Augustus' divine lineage
- Incorporates luxurious materials (marble) and innovative architectural elements
Ara Pacis Augustae
- Altar dedicated to Pax Augusta (Augustan Peace) in Campus Martius
- Intricate relief sculptures depict Augustan family, Roman myths, and allegories
- Processional friezes show imperial family participating in religious ceremony
- Vegetal friezes symbolize abundance and prosperity under Augustus' rule
- Blends Greek and Roman artistic styles, creating distinctly Augustan aesthetic
Temple of Apollo Palatinus
- Built on Palatine Hill, adjacent to Augustus' private residence
- Houses important Sibylline Books, emphasizing Augustus' religious authority
- Decorative program links Augustus to Apollo, his divine patron
- Incorporates Greek architectural elements (Corinthian columns) with Roman features
- Establishes Palatine Hill as center of imperial power for future emperors
Imperial succession
- Establishes precedents for transfer of power in the new imperial system
- Influences the representation of imperial family members in art and architecture
- Shapes the narrative of dynastic continuity in Augustan propaganda
Julio-Claudian dynasty
- Augustus promotes male members of his family for potential succession
- Marcellus, Gaius, and Lucius Caesar groomed as heirs but die young
- Tiberius adopted as son and heir after exhausting other options
- Emphasis on Julian and Claudian family connections in public imagery
- Dynasty continues through Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero
Adoption and heredity
- Use of adoption to create artificial lineage when natural heirs unavailable
- Blending of bloodline succession with merit-based selection
- Tension between hereditary principle and best-qualified candidate
- Public presentation of adopted heirs as natural successors
- Precedent set for future imperial adoptions (Five Good Emperors)
Tiberius as successor
- Initially reluctant to accept role as Augustus' heir
- Granted tribunicia potestas and imperium maius, mirroring Augustus' powers
- Carefully presented to public and army as Augustus' chosen successor
- Smooth transition of power after Augustus' death in 14 CE
- Continues many of Augustus' policies while developing his own ruling style
Legacy of the Principate
- Establishes the foundation for the Roman Empire's political and cultural development
- Influences artistic and architectural styles throughout the imperial period and beyond
- Creates a model of imperial rule that persists for centuries in various forms
Long-term political impact
- Centralization of power in emperor's hands becomes norm for Roman governance
- Republican institutions gradually lose relevance over subsequent centuries
- Model of Principate evolves into more openly autocratic Dominate system
- Influences development of imperial systems in later European monarchies
- Concept of emperor as source of law shapes Western legal traditions
Cultural golden age
- Flourishing of literature, art, and architecture sets standards for centuries
- Latin language reaches peak of refinement, influencing European languages
- Development of distinctly Roman artistic style blending Greek and Italian elements
- Establishment of imperial patronage system for arts continues under later emperors
- Augustan cultural achievements become benchmark for later "golden ages"
Pax Romana establishment
- Period of relative peace and stability within Roman borders
- Enables economic prosperity and cultural exchange across Mediterranean
- Facilitates spread of Roman culture, law, and institutions throughout empire
- Allows for massive infrastructure projects (roads, aqueducts) connecting empire
- Creates conditions for population growth and urbanization across Roman world
Key Terms to Review (19)
Agrippa: Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was a prominent Roman general and statesman, closely associated with Augustus and crucial in the establishment of the Roman Empire. He played an essential role in military victories and urban development, making significant contributions to social reforms, public spaces, and the promotion of Augustan ideology through art and architecture.
Ara Pacis: The Ara Pacis, or Altar of Peace, is a monumental altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace, and was commissioned by the Roman Senate in 13 BCE to honor Augustus's return from Spain and Gaul. This structure is not only an important piece of propaganda celebrating peace and prosperity but also embodies Augustan ideology, reflecting the social, political, and cultural transformations during his reign.
Augustan Poetry: Augustan poetry refers to the body of literary work produced during the reign of Emperor Augustus (27 BCE - 14 CE), characterized by its themes of love, heroism, and the idealization of Roman values. This genre played a vital role in promoting Augustus' political agenda and the moral standards of the time, reflecting both personal emotions and the grandeur of the empire.
Augustus: Augustus was the first Roman emperor, who ruled from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He transformed the Roman Republic into a stable autocracy, establishing a new political system known as the Principate, which centralized power while maintaining the facade of the old Republic. His reign marked significant social, political, and architectural advancements that shaped Rome’s future.
Augustus of Primaporta: The Augustus of Primaporta is a famous statue of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, depicting him in a heroic pose that conveys power and authority. This statue is not just an artistic representation but also a political statement, embodying the ideals of the early Roman Empire and the transition to imperial rule.
Battle of Actium: The Battle of Actium was a decisive naval confrontation that occurred in 31 BCE between the forces of Octavian and those of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. This pivotal battle marked the end of the Roman Republic and set the stage for Octavian’s rise to power, leading to the establishment of the Roman Empire.
Corinthian Order: The Corinthian Order is a classical order of ancient Greek architecture characterized by its ornate columns, elaborate capitals adorned with acanthus leaves, and slender proportions. This style represents a culmination of architectural innovation and is often associated with grand public buildings and temples that conveyed power and magnificence.
Forum of Augustus: The Forum of Augustus is an ancient public space built in Rome by Emperor Augustus around 2 BCE, designed as a monumental complex to showcase his achievements and reinforce his political power. This forum was strategically positioned adjacent to the Forum of Julius Caesar, symbolizing the continuity and legitimacy of Augustus' rule following the fall of the Roman Republic.
Gemma augustea: The gemma augustea is an exquisite Roman gemstone carving that dates back to the early 1st century AD, showcasing the power and divine status of Emperor Augustus. This artistic piece not only highlights Augustus as a triumphant leader but also serves as a crucial visual representation of the establishment of the Principate, integrating both political authority and religious symbolism. The gemma combines intricate iconography with visual rhetoric to communicate imperial power and the idea of Augustus as a semi-divine figure.
Idealism: Idealism is an artistic and philosophical concept that emphasizes the portrayal of subjects in an idealized manner, often depicting them as more beautiful, noble, or perfect than they are in reality. This approach seeks to convey a sense of beauty and perfection, often rooted in the values and ideals of the society creating the art.
Imperium: Imperium refers to the supreme authority or command vested in certain officials in ancient Rome, particularly in military and administrative contexts. This concept was crucial during the establishment of the Principate as it signified the power that Augustus held, allowing him to consolidate control and establish a new form of governance. Imperium was also associated with the right to command troops and govern provinces, thus playing a vital role in maintaining order and expanding the empire.
Pantheon: The Pantheon is a monumental temple in Rome, originally built to honor all the gods of Ancient Rome. It stands as a prime example of Roman architecture, symbolizing the merging of religious and civic life during the Augustan era, reflecting the cultural renaissance and innovative building techniques that characterized this period.
Pax Romana: Pax Romana, meaning 'Roman Peace,' refers to a 200-year period of relative stability and prosperity across the Roman Empire that began with the reign of Augustus in 27 BCE and lasted until around 180 CE. This era is characterized by reduced military expansion, a flourishing economy, and significant advancements in arts and culture, which are critical to understanding the transformation of Rome during and after the establishment of the imperial system.
Res gestae divi augusti: The 'res gestae divi augusti' is a first-person account of the achievements of the Roman Emperor Augustus, detailing his life and accomplishments from his own perspective. This text serves as a foundational document for understanding how Augustus established the Principate, represented his imperial family through portraiture, restored traditional Roman religious practices, and embodied virtues and concepts that were central to Roman identity.
Roman Literature: Roman literature refers to the body of written works produced in ancient Rome, encompassing various genres such as poetry, prose, and drama. It reflects the social, political, and cultural dynamics of Roman society, especially during the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire under the Principate. The literature of this period showcases themes of power, identity, and moral values, often serving as a means for authors to navigate and comment on the changing political landscape.
Roman Monumental Architecture: Roman monumental architecture refers to the grand and often massive structures built by the Romans to showcase their power, engineering prowess, and cultural achievements. This type of architecture includes buildings such as temples, basilicas, triumphal arches, and amphitheaters, which not only served practical purposes but also conveyed the authority of the state and the glory of its leaders, particularly during the establishment of the Principate.
The Aeneid: The Aeneid is an epic poem written by the Roman poet Virgil between 29 and 19 BCE, which tells the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, and his journey to establish a new homeland in Italy. This work not only celebrates Aeneas's heroic deeds but also serves as a foundational myth for Rome, linking its origins to the heroic past of the Trojans and portraying the values of duty, piety, and sacrifice that were important during the transition to the Principate. Through its themes and narrative, The Aeneid reinforces the legitimacy of Augustus's rule and the social and political reforms he implemented in Roman society.
The Settlement of 27 BC: The Settlement of 27 BC marked a pivotal moment in Roman history, establishing the foundation for the Principate and solidifying Augustus's power as the first Roman emperor. This settlement effectively transitioned Rome from a republic, characterized by its complex system of checks and balances, to an imperial system where one individual held supreme authority, albeit under the guise of republican traditions. Augustus presented this new order as a restoration of the Republic, emphasizing peace and stability while centralizing power in his hands.
Verism: Verism is an artistic style that emphasizes realistic portrayal, often highlighting the subject's age, imperfections, and individuality. In the context of Roman art, verism was particularly prevalent during the late Republican period and into the early Imperial era, as it conveyed a sense of authenticity and moral integrity, often associated with political leaders and public figures.