4.3 National Movements in Greece, Belgium, and Poland
5 min read•july 30, 2024
The 19th century saw a wave of national movements sweep across Europe, challenging the old order. Greece, Belgium, and Poland emerged as key battlegrounds in the struggle for self-determination, each with unique circumstances and outcomes that shaped the continent's political landscape.
These movements reflected the broader rise of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. While Greece and Belgium successfully established independent states, Poland's struggle against partition continued, highlighting the complex interplay of local aspirations, great power politics, and cultural identity in shaping national destinies.
Greek War of Independence
Origins and Key Organizations
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- began in 1821 and lasted until 1832
- , a secret organization founded in 1814, organized and initiated the revolution against Ottoman rule
- , Greek military commander, led the first major revolutionary action in 1821
- Crossed the Prut River into Ottoman-held Moldavia
- Massacre of Greeks on the island of Chios in 1822 by Ottoman forces
- Garnered international sympathy for the Greek cause
- Inspired Eugène Delacroix's painting "The Massacre at Chios"
Turning Points and International Involvement
- in 1827 marked a turning point in the war
- Combined naval forces of Britain, France, and Russia defeated the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet
- International support played a crucial role in the Greek struggle
- movement in Western Europe (Lord Byron)
- Russian interest in weakening Ottoman power in the Balkans
- in 1832 formally recognized Greek independence
- Otto of Bavaria became the first King of Greece
Establishment of the Greek State
- elected as the first head of state of independent Greece in 1827
- Established foundations of the modern Greek state
- Implemented administrative and educational reforms
- Challenges in building a new nation
- Integration of diverse regions and populations
- Economic reconstruction after years of warfare
- Legacy of the Greek War of Independence
- Inspired other Balkan nationalist movements
- Weakened Ottoman control in Southeastern Europe
Belgian Revolution and Independence
Causes of Belgian Discontent
- 's 1815 decision united Southern Netherlands (modern-day Belgium) with Dutch Republic
- Created tensions due to cultural, linguistic, and religious differences
- Economic disparities between industrialized south and agricultural north
- Belgian industrial centers (Liège, Ghent) vs. Dutch commercial interests
- Authoritarian policies of King William I of the Netherlands
- Imposed Dutch as the official language
- Fueled resentment among French-speaking Walloons and Dutch-speaking Flemings
Revolutionary Events and Key Moments
- July Revolution of 1830 in France inspired Belgian revolutionaries
- Provided a model for uprising against foreign rule
- Performance of "La Muette de Portici" in Brussels on August 25, 1830
- Sparked riots that quickly spread throughout southern provinces
- Formation of provisional government on September 26, 1830
- Led by prominent Belgian liberals and Catholics
- on October 4, 1830
- Marked culmination of revolutionary movement
International Response and State Formation
- International support crucial for legitimizing Belgian independence
- Britain and France played key roles in diplomatic negotiations
- of 1830-1831 recognized Belgian independence
- Established Belgium as a neutral state
- Guaranteed by major European powers
- chosen as first King of the Belgians in 1831
- Constitutional monarchy established
- in 1839 finalized Dutch recognition of Belgian independence
- Set borders of the new Belgian state
Polish Uprisings and Partition
November Uprising (1830-1831)
- Rebellion against Russian rule in Congress Poland
- Sparked by 's plan to use Polish army against French July Revolution
- Initial military successes followed by Russian counteroffensive
- Polish forces defeated at (May 1831)
- Consequences of failure
- Abolition of Polish constitution
- Integration of Poland into Russian Empire as a province
- "" of Polish elites to Western Europe (particularly France)
Kraków Uprising and January Uprising
- of 1846
- Failed attempt to restore Polish independence
- Resulted in annexation of Free City of Kraków by Austria
- of 1863-1864 against Russian rule
- Longest-lasting Polish insurrection of 19th century
- Characterized by guerrilla warfare tactics
- Failure led to intensified Russification policies
Impact on Polish Society and Culture
- Severe repression following failed rebellions
- Executions, deportations to Siberia, confiscation of noble estates
- Dramatic alteration of Polish social structure
- Weakening of traditional nobility (szlachta)
- Emergence of new social classes (intelligentsia, urban workers)
- Development of Polish nationalism and preservation of cultural identity
- Literature and arts as means of national expression (, )
- Influence on political ideologies
- Rise of and as alternatives to armed struggle
National Movements: Greece vs Belgium vs Poland
Strategies and International Context
- Greek War of Independence relied on guerrilla warfare tactics and international support
- Philhellenism movement in Western Europe
- Russian intervention against Ottoman Empire
- Belgian Revolution characterized by quick and successful uprising
- Benefited from internal unity and favorable international circumstances
- Support from Britain and France
- Polish national movements employed series of armed insurrections
- Lacked significant external support for uprisings
- Faced formidable opponents in Russia, Prussia, and Austria
Cultural and Linguistic Factors
- Language and religion played crucial roles in Greek and Belgian movements
- Greek Orthodox Church as unifying force for Greek nationalism
- Linguistic divide between Dutch-speaking Flemings and French-speaking Walloons in Belgium
- Polish cultural identity preserved despite loss of political autonomy
- Role of Catholic Church in maintaining Polish traditions
- Importance of Polish language in resistance to Russification and Germanization
Outcomes and Long-term Impact
- Greece and Belgium emerged as new nation-states
- Redrew map of Southeastern Europe and Low Countries
- Challenged legitimacy of multi-ethnic empires
- Poland's partition continued to influence Central and Eastern European politics
- "Polish Question" remained unresolved until after World War I
- Legacy of resistance shaped modern Polish national identity
- Varying degrees of success influenced future nationalist movements
- Greek and Belgian examples inspired other European nationalities
- Polish experience highlighted challenges of achieving independence against multiple great powers
Key Terms to Review (27)
1830 Belgian Revolution: The 1830 Belgian Revolution was a revolt against Dutch rule in the southern provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, leading to the establishment of Belgium as an independent nation. This revolution was part of a broader wave of national movements across Europe during the early 19th century, as various groups sought to assert their national identities and break free from foreign domination.
Adam Mickiewicz: Adam Mickiewicz was a renowned Polish Romantic poet and playwright, often regarded as one of Poland's national bards. His works inspired the Polish national movement, particularly during the 19th century when Poland was partitioned among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Mickiewicz's literature fostered a sense of national identity and pride among Poles, making him a pivotal figure in the struggle for Polish independence.
Alexandros Ypsilantis: Alexandros Ypsilantis was a Greek nobleman and military leader who played a significant role in the early stages of the Greek War of Independence against Ottoman rule in the 1820s. He is best known for leading an uprising in 1821 that aimed to liberate Greece from Ottoman control, marking him as a key figure in the national movements during this period.
Battle of Navarino: The Battle of Navarino, fought on October 20, 1827, was a significant naval engagement during the Greek War of Independence, where a combined fleet of British, French, and Russian forces decisively defeated the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. This battle was crucial as it marked the turning point in the struggle for Greek independence, showcasing the increasing support of European powers for national movements against Ottoman rule.
Battle of Ostrołęka: The Battle of Ostrołęka was a significant military engagement fought on February 26, 1831, during the November Uprising in Poland against Russian rule. This battle was part of the broader national movements seeking independence and self-determination, particularly highlighting Polish efforts to assert their national identity and resist foreign domination.
Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was a diplomatic conference held from 1814 to 1815, aimed at reshaping Europe after the defeat of Napoleon and restoring stability to the continent. It established a framework for international relations and sought to balance power among the major European nations, while addressing the rise of nationalism and liberalism that emerged during and after the Napoleonic Wars.
Cultural nationalism: Cultural nationalism is a form of nationalism that emphasizes the importance of shared culture, language, and heritage in fostering a sense of national identity. It promotes the idea that a nation is defined not only by political boundaries but also by cultural characteristics that unite its people. This concept played a significant role in various national movements during the 19th century, as groups sought to assert their identity against dominant empires.
Daniel Auber's Opera: Daniel Auber's opera refers to the significant body of work by the French composer, particularly known for his contributions to the genre of opéra comique during the early to mid-19th century. Auber's operas often incorporated elements of nationalism, which resonated with movements seeking independence and self-determination in countries like Greece, Belgium, and Poland, thus playing a crucial role in shaping the cultural landscape of Europe during a time of political upheaval and national consciousness.
Declaration of Belgian Independence: The Declaration of Belgian Independence was a formal assertion of Belgium's sovereignty from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, proclaimed on October 4, 1830. This pivotal moment marked the beginning of Belgium as an independent nation, reflecting the growing national consciousness and desire for self-determination among the Belgian people, which was part of broader national movements across Europe during the 19th century.
Filiki Eteria: Filiki Eteria was a secret society founded in 1814 with the aim of liberating Greece from Ottoman rule and establishing an independent Greek state. This organization played a critical role in inspiring and organizing the Greek War of Independence, fostering a sense of national identity among Greeks and promoting revolutionary activities against the Ottoman Empire.
Frédéric Chopin: Frédéric Chopin was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, known for his expressive piano compositions that blend Polish folk themes with classical traditions. His works played a significant role in the national movements in Poland, as they symbolized Polish identity and resilience during a time of political upheaval and partitions.
Great emigration: The great emigration refers to a significant wave of migration from Europe, particularly from countries like Ireland and Germany, primarily during the 19th century. This movement was largely driven by a combination of economic hardship, political instability, and social pressures in home countries, leading many individuals and families to seek better opportunities in places like the United States and Australia. The great emigration not only transformed the demographics of the receiving nations but also had lasting effects on European society as national movements and revolutions unfolded.
Greek War of Independence: The Greek War of Independence was a successful revolution by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire, lasting from 1821 to 1829. This struggle for national self-determination emerged during a time when nationalist sentiments were growing across Europe, significantly influenced by the political upheavals following the fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna, as well as early liberal movements seeking democratic reforms and independence in various regions.
Ioannis Kapodistrias: Ioannis Kapodistrias was a prominent Greek statesman and the first Governor of Greece after its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1827. He played a crucial role in establishing the new Greek state, navigating the complexities of international politics, and promoting modernization and reform within Greece during a tumultuous period.
January Uprising: The January Uprising was a Polish national revolt that took place in 1863-1864 against Russian rule in the Kingdom of Poland. It aimed to restore Poland's independence and was part of a broader wave of nationalist movements across Europe during this time, specifically linked to the struggles for autonomy and self-determination in various regions.
Kraków Uprising: The Kraków Uprising was a significant national movement in Poland that occurred in 1846, where Polish patriots attempted to liberate the city of Kraków from Austrian rule. This uprising was part of a broader wave of nationalistic fervor across Europe during the 19th century, reflecting the desire for independence and self-determination among various ethnic groups, particularly in Poland, which had been partitioned by neighboring powers. The failure of the uprising not only highlighted the challenges of Polish nationalism but also influenced future movements for independence.
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was a German prince who became the first King of the Belgians from 1831 until his death in 1865. He played a significant role in the establishment of Belgium as an independent state, particularly during its national movement against Dutch rule, while also influencing European politics and monarchy through his connections and marriage alliances.
London Conference: The London Conference refers to a series of diplomatic meetings held in 1830-1831 among the major European powers, aimed at addressing the ongoing national movements in Greece, Belgium, and Poland. This conference was crucial in shaping the political landscape of Europe by addressing the aspirations of various national groups seeking independence or autonomy from larger empires. The decisions made during the London Conference had lasting impacts on the development of national identities and the balance of power in Europe.
Massacre of Chios: The Massacre of Chios refers to the brutal slaughter and enslavement of a significant portion of the Greek population on the island of Chios by Ottoman forces in 1822 during the Greek War of Independence. This horrific event highlighted the violent repression faced by Greeks in their struggle for independence and served as a rallying cry for support from other nations, influencing the broader national movements across Europe.
National sovereignty: National sovereignty is the principle that a state has the ultimate authority and independence over its territory, free from external interference. This concept connects deeply with ideas of self-determination, governance, and the rights of nations to control their own affairs without outside influence. In the 19th century, national sovereignty became a rallying point for various movements seeking independence or reform, as different groups sought to assert their right to self-govern and define their national identity.
November Uprising: The November Uprising was a Polish revolt against Russian rule that began in November 1830 and lasted until October 1831. This uprising aimed to restore Polish independence and was part of a broader wave of national movements across Europe, reflecting the growing desire for self-determination and national identity in the face of imperial control.
Philhellenism: Philhellenism is a cultural and political movement that emerged in the 19th century, characterized by admiration and support for Greek culture, history, and the struggle for independence from Ottoman rule. This movement played a significant role in mobilizing public sentiment and support for the Greek War of Independence, as well as influencing other national movements in Europe during this period.
Positivism: Positivism is a philosophical theory that asserts that only scientific knowledge derived from empirical evidence, such as observations and experiments, is of real value. It emphasizes observable phenomena and argues against metaphysical speculation, promoting a systematic approach to knowledge that relies on reason and logic. This idea significantly influenced various fields, including social sciences and cultural movements, shaping how people understood society and the natural world during the 19th century.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system where the means of production, distribution, and exchange are owned or regulated by the community as a whole. This ideology advocates for social ownership and democratic control of the economy, aiming to reduce inequality and ensure that wealth is distributed more fairly among the population.
Treaty of Constantinople: The Treaty of Constantinople, signed in 1832, formally recognized the independence of Greece from the Ottoman Empire. This treaty marked a significant victory for Greek nationalists and set a precedent for other nationalist movements in Europe, demonstrating the growing trend of self-determination and national identity during the 19th century.
Treaty of London: The Treaty of London was an agreement reached in 1830 that recognized Belgium's independence from the Netherlands and established its borders. This treaty marked a significant moment in European diplomacy, as it not only resolved the Belgian Revolution but also had wider implications for national movements across Europe, particularly in relation to the rising sentiments of nationalism in Greece and Poland.
Tsar Nicholas I: Tsar Nicholas I was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until his death in 1855, known for his autocratic rule and commitment to conservatism. He played a significant role in suppressing nationalist movements in Europe, particularly in Poland, while also overseeing Russia's involvement in the Crimean War, which ultimately weakened the Russian Empire and exposed its vulnerabilities.