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Table of Contents
Unit 3 Overview: Conflict & American Independence (1754-1800)
3.1 Context: The Revolutionary Period
3.2 The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)
3.3 Taxation without Representation
3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution
3.5 The American Revolution
3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals
3.7 The Articles of Confederation
3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification
3.9 The Constitution
3.10 Shaping a New Republic
3.11 Developing an American Identity
3.12 Movement in the Early Republic
3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3 (1754-1800)

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3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution

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The American Revolution was not just a political and military conflict, but also a philosophical revolution grounded in Enlightenment ideas about government, individual rights, and the relationship between citizens and their rulers.

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement that emerged in 18th-century Europe and emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism. It laid the foundations for many of the values and ideals that shaped the American Revolution.

Central Ideas of the Enlightenment

"Reason over Revelation" is a core principle of Enlightenment thought, signifying how people began looking to human reason, rather than divine authority, to understand the world and solve problems. From this emphasis on reason emerged new political ideas about natural rights and the proper function of government.

✨ Key Enlightenment thinkers whose ideas influenced the American Revolution include:

  • John Locke argued that people have certain inalienable natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. These rights are not granted by government but exist naturally and cannot be taken away. Locke proposed that governments exist to protect these rights, and if a government fails to do so, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.

  • Thomas Hobbes developed the theory of the social contract, arguing that in the natural state, life was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." People form governments to escape this state and ensure their safety. Under the social contract, people surrender some freedoms in exchange for security and order.

  • Baron de Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers to prevent tyranny. He argued that government should be divided into different branches (executive, legislative, judicial), each with distinct powers and responsibilities. This concept heavily influenced the structure of the American government.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau expanded on social contract theory, emphasizing the importance of the common good. He argued that legitimate political authority comes from the consent of the governed and that government should represent the "general will" of the people.

The Social Contract Theory suggests that people agree to give up some individual freedoms to live under a government that protects their remaining rights. According to this theory, government exists to serve the common good and protect citizens' natural rights.

Enlightenment Ideas in Colonial America

Enlightenment ideas spread through the American colonies through books, pamphlets, and correspondence with European intellectuals. Colonial leaders including Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton were deeply influenced by Enlightenment philosophy.

Colonial leaders increasingly rejected the notion of the divine right of kings and aristocratic privilege. Instead, they embraced ideas about:

  • Individual rights
  • Government by consent
  • Representation in government
  • The rule of law
  • Checks on government power

Religious Influences

While Enlightenment ideas emphasized reason, religious beliefs also played an important role in shaping revolutionary thought. Many colonists believed that God had granted them liberty and that America had a special purpose or destiny.

The Great Awakening, a religious revival that swept through the colonies in the mid-18th century, reinforced ideas about:

  • Individual conscience
  • Questioning established authority
  • Spiritual equality
  • Moral self-improvement

These religious concepts complemented Enlightenment ideas about individual rights and representative government, creating a powerful intellectual foundation for revolution.

Thomas Paine's "Common Sense"

Image Courtesy of American Battlefield Trust

Published in January 1776, Thomas Paine's pamphlet "Common Sense" was a pivotal document that helped persuade many colonists to support independence.

Paine, a recent immigrant from England, wrote in a direct, accessible style that appealed to ordinary colonists. His key arguments included:

  • The absurdity of an island (Britain) ruling a continent (America)
  • The corrupt and tyrannical nature of monarchy as a system of government
  • The economic benefits of independence and free trade
  • The moral necessity of establishing a republican government in America

"Common Sense" sold approximately 150,000 copies within a few months, an extraordinary number for the time. Its widespread popularity helped transform colonial thinking from reform within the British system to outright independence.

Paine's famous quote captured his central argument:

"It is common sense that the Americans should have their own country and not be controlled by a king far away."

The Declaration of Independence

The influence of Enlightenment ideals and Paine's "Common Sense" culminated in the Declaration of Independence, which expressed the philosophical justification for American independence.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution to the Second Continental Congress calling for independence from Great Britain. After this resolution passed on July 2, Thomas Jefferson was appointed to lead a committee to draft a formal declaration explaining the colonies' actions to the world.

The Declaration of Independence, adopted on July 4, 1776, represents the clearest expression of Enlightenment principles in American founding documents. It includes:

  • The assertion that "all men are created equal"
  • The concept of "unalienable rights" including "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"
  • The principle that governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed"
  • The right of revolution when a government becomes destructive of these ends

The Declaration served multiple purposes:

  • A formal announcement of independence to other nations
  • An appeal for international support and recognition
  • A philosophical statement of revolutionary principles
  • A rallying cry for Americans to support the revolutionary cause

Legacy of Revolutionary Ideas

The philosophical foundations of the American Revolution have had a lasting impact:

  • They provided the intellectual framework for the Constitution and Bill of Rights
  • They established enduring American values of liberty, equality, and self-government
  • They inspired later democratic movements around the world
  • They created an American identity based on shared political ideals rather than ethnic or religious identity

These revolutionary ideas continue to shape American political thought and national identity, representing what Thomas Jefferson called "the American mind."

Key Terms to Review (41)

Alexander Hamilton: Alexander Hamilton was a Founding Father and the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, who played a crucial role in shaping the financial system and political landscape of the new republic. His vision for a strong central government, economic development, and a national bank laid the groundwork for modern American fiscal policy and the emergence of political factions.
American Independence: American Independence refers to the 13 American colonies' assertion of sovereignty and self-governance, culminating in their declaration of freedom from British rule in 1776. This movement was rooted in Enlightenment ideals and a growing desire for autonomy, shaped by the colonies' experiences with British policies and taxes, leading to a revolutionary war that established the United States as an independent nation.
Baron de Montesquieu: Baron de Montesquieu was an influential French philosopher known for his ideas on the separation of powers in government, which became a foundational principle in modern political thought. His work, particularly 'The Spirit of the Laws,' argued that political liberty could only be achieved by dividing government powers among separate branches to prevent tyranny. Montesquieu's ideas greatly impacted the formation of political systems, including the Constitution of the United States, emphasizing the importance of checks and balances.
Ben Franklin: Ben Franklin was a Founding Father of the United States, renowned for his contributions as a statesman, inventor, and philosopher. He played a crucial role in various key events, including advocating for colonial unity during conflicts with Britain and contributing to the ideological foundations of the American Revolution through Enlightenment thought. His influence extended into the drafting of the Constitution, where he was instrumental in fostering compromise among differing viewpoints.
British Rule: British Rule refers to the period when Great Britain controlled the American colonies, enforcing laws and regulations that governed colonial life and economy. This authority was marked by a series of political, social, and economic measures that sparked growing discontent among colonists, leading to a demand for independence and ultimately the American Revolution.
Checks and Balances: Checks and balances is a system designed to prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful by allowing each branch to limit the powers of the others. This principle ensures that the legislative, executive, and judicial branches operate within their own spheres while providing oversight and accountability to maintain a balance of power. By incorporating checks and balances, the framers aimed to safeguard against tyranny and protect individual liberties.
Common Good: The common good refers to the idea that societal decisions and actions should benefit the collective well-being of the community as a whole, rather than just individual interests. This concept plays a critical role in political philosophy, particularly in discussions about governance, civic responsibility, and moral obligation. It emphasizes the importance of promoting justice and ensuring that all members of society can thrive together.
Common Sense: Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 that advocated for American independence from British rule. It played a crucial role in shaping public opinion by arguing that it was common sense for the colonies to break away from a tyrannical government and establish their own democratic system. The pamphlet used straightforward language and compelling arguments to inspire the American populace, marking a pivotal moment in the revolutionary movement.
Constitution: The Constitution is the foundational legal document that outlines the framework of the United States government, establishing the principles of democracy and the rule of law. It serves as a guideline for how the government operates and protects individual rights, shaping the political landscape of the nation from its inception to modern times.
Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence is a foundational document that announced the American colonies' separation from British rule, asserting their right to self-govern and listing grievances against King George III. This pivotal text reflects Enlightenment ideals and significantly influenced both American identity and the global movement for democracy and independence.
Democracy: Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who exercise that power directly or through elected representatives. This concept became fundamental to American identity and governance during the revolutionary era and significantly evolved in subsequent periods, reflecting changing societal values and political ideologies.
Distrust of Aristocracy: Distrust of Aristocracy refers to the skepticism and wariness towards a ruling class composed of hereditary elites, which was prevalent during the time leading up to the American Revolution. This sentiment emerged from the belief that aristocrats were disconnected from the needs and desires of the common people, often leading to corruption and tyranny. This distrust played a significant role in shaping the political philosophies that fueled the push for independence and democracy.
Equality: Equality refers to the principle that all individuals possess the same inherent worth and should have the same rights and opportunities under the law. This concept is foundational to the ideas that fueled movements for social justice and democracy, emphasizing the importance of fairness and equal treatment in society. It connects deeply to themes of freedom, justice, and the belief that all men are created equal.
Five-Member Committee: The Five-Member Committee was a group established by the Continental Congress in 1776 to draft the Declaration of Independence. This committee played a crucial role in articulating the colonies' desire for independence from British rule, embodying the Enlightenment ideals that shaped revolutionary thought.
Independence Day: Independence Day, celebrated on July 4th, commemorates the adoption of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, marking the formal separation of the thirteen American colonies from British rule. This day symbolizes the core values of liberty, democracy, and self-governance that were foundational to the American Revolution, reflecting the philosophical shift toward individual rights and the rejection of tyranny.
Individual Rights: Individual rights are the liberties and freedoms that belong to each person, protecting them from government overreach and ensuring personal autonomy. These rights are foundational to democratic societies, emphasizing the importance of personal freedoms, equality, and justice, which were crucial ideas during the American Revolution and continued to evolve in later periods of U.S. history.
James Madison: James Madison was the fourth President of the United States and a key founding father, known as the 'Father of the Constitution' for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights. His contributions were essential in shaping the new republic, advocating for a strong central government while balancing the rights of states and individuals.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an influential Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on social contract theory and individual freedom greatly impacted political thought. His work emphasized the importance of popular sovereignty, where the authority of the government derives from the consent of the governed, laying the groundwork for democratic ideals that inspired revolutionary movements, including the American Revolution.
John Adams: John Adams was the second President of the United States, serving from 1797 to 1801, and a key figure in the founding of the nation. He played a significant role in shaping the new government, advocating for independence, and establishing the principles that would guide the Republic. His influence extended to his opposition to British tyranny and his commitment to revolutionary ideals, which shaped the American political landscape.
John Locke: John Locke was a 17th-century English philosopher whose ideas on natural rights and government greatly influenced the political landscape of the Enlightenment and the development of liberal democracy. His belief in life, liberty, and property as fundamental rights laid the groundwork for the concept of social contracts, emphasizing that governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed. Locke's writings significantly impacted revolutionary thought, particularly in the American colonies, by promoting individual rights and questioning traditional authority.
July 2, 1776: July 2, 1776, is the date on which the Continental Congress voted in favor of independence from Great Britain, marking a pivotal moment in American history. This day is significant as it led to the formal declaration of independence two days later and represents the culmination of Enlightenment ideas about governance, liberty, and the rights of individuals.
July 4, 1776: July 4, 1776, is the date when the Second Continental Congress formally adopted the Declaration of Independence, marking the thirteen American colonies' assertion of independence from British rule. This day is celebrated as Independence Day in the United States and symbolizes the philosophical underpinnings of liberty, equality, and democratic governance that fueled the American Revolution.
Natural Rights: Natural rights are the fundamental rights that every individual possesses simply by being human, which are not granted by any authority or government. These rights include the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and they form the philosophical backbone for the justification of revolution against oppressive governments. The concept emphasizes the idea that individuals have inherent rights that must be respected and protected by society and its institutions.
Philadelphia: Philadelphia is a major city in Pennsylvania, founded in 1682 by William Penn as a place of religious freedom and tolerance. It became an important cultural and political center in early American history, known for its role in the founding of the nation and as a hub of revolutionary activity.
Reason over Revelation: Reason over Revelation is a philosophical principle emphasizing the importance of human reason and rational thought over traditional religious beliefs or divine revelations. This idea became a cornerstone of Enlightenment thinking and significantly influenced the ideological underpinnings of the American Revolution, promoting values such as individual liberty, democracy, and the questioning of authority.
Representation: Representation refers to the practice of electing individuals to speak and act on behalf of a group, particularly in the context of government and political systems. This concept is crucial in understanding the relationship between citizens and their government, influencing ideas about democracy, the rights of individuals, and the structure of political power. It serves as a foundation for debates regarding how best to ensure that all voices are heard and that governance reflects the will of the people.
Republicanism: Republicanism is a political ideology centered on the belief that government should be based on the consent of the governed and emphasize individual rights, civic virtue, and the common good. This ideology played a crucial role in shaping the political thought during the American Revolution, as it sought to create a government that represented the people rather than a monarchy or dictatorship, promoting principles of democracy and participation.
Resolution for Independence: The Resolution for Independence, also known as the Lee Resolution, was a formal statement adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 2, 1776, declaring the thirteen American colonies free and independent from British rule. This pivotal decision was rooted in Enlightenment principles that emphasized natural rights and the social contract, ultimately leading to the drafting of the Declaration of Independence just days later.
Richard Henry Lee: Richard Henry Lee was a prominent American statesman and a member of the Continental Congress who is best known for his resolution calling for independence from Great Britain in 1776. His declaration laid the groundwork for the eventual adoption of the Declaration of Independence, making him a key figure in the philosophical shift towards self-governance and freedom during the American Revolution.
Robert R. Livingston: Robert R. Livingston was a prominent American statesman and diplomat who played a significant role in the early history of the United States, particularly as a leading advocate for independence during the American Revolution. He was one of the key figures in drafting the Declaration of Independence and served as the first Chancellor of New York, influencing the legal and political landscape of the new nation.
Roger Sherman: Roger Sherman was a prominent Founding Father and a key figure in the early history of the United States, known for his contributions to the drafting of the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. He was instrumental in shaping the federal system of government and is best remembered for proposing the Great Compromise, which established a bicameral legislature that balanced the interests of both large and small states.
Science over Religion: Science over Religion refers to the philosophical shift that prioritizes empirical evidence and rational thought over faith-based beliefs in explaining the world. This concept became increasingly significant during the Enlightenment, as thinkers began to challenge traditional religious authority and promote the idea that human reason and observation should guide understanding, particularly in the context of governance and individual rights leading up to the American Revolution.
Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress was a gathering of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that convened in Philadelphia in May 1775, following the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. This Congress acted as the de facto national government for the colonies, managing the war effort, coordinating military actions, and ultimately adopting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, shaping the philosophical foundations of American governance and later influencing the Articles of Confederation.
Separation of Powers: Separation of Powers is a governance principle that divides the responsibilities and powers of government into three distinct branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. This structure is designed to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and ensures a system of checks and balances where each branch can monitor and limit the actions of the others. This concept is rooted in Enlightenment ideas about government and human rights, providing a framework for democratic governance.
Social Contract: The social contract is a philosophical concept that posits an implicit agreement among individuals to form a society and abide by its rules in exchange for protection and the benefits of communal living. This idea forms a foundational element in political theory, arguing that government legitimacy arises from the consent of the governed, influencing revolutionary thought and ideals of democracy during times of upheaval.
Tabula Rasa: Tabula Rasa is a philosophical concept that translates to 'blank slate,' suggesting that individuals are born without built-in mental content and that all knowledge comes from experience and perception. This idea played a crucial role in Enlightenment thought, influencing theories of human nature and governance, as it implied that society could shape individuals through education and rational thought, which in turn laid the groundwork for revolutionary ideas about democracy and rights.
The Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. This period laid the groundwork for modern democratic thought by promoting ideas about liberty, equality, and justice that would later influence revolutionary movements, particularly in America. Thinkers of the Enlightenment believed that through reason and scientific inquiry, humanity could improve society and govern itself more effectively.
Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was a 17th-century English philosopher best known for his political theory outlined in his work 'Leviathan.' He argued for the necessity of a strong, centralized authority to avoid chaos and violence in society, emphasizing that humans are naturally self-interested and in a constant state of competition. His ideas significantly influenced the philosophical foundations of modern political thought and contributed to the Enlightenment discussions that preceded the American Revolution.
Thomas Jefferson: Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States and a principal author of the Declaration of Independence, known for his strong advocacy of individual liberties and democratic principles. His beliefs shaped the foundation of American democracy and influenced the nation’s early development through his presidency and political philosophies.
Thomas Paine: Thomas Paine was a political activist, philosopher, and writer whose works, particularly 'Common Sense' and 'The Crisis,' were crucial in galvanizing public opinion in favor of American independence during the Revolutionary War. His writings articulated Enlightenment ideals and advocated for democracy, individual rights, and the rejection of monarchical rule, which resonated deeply with the colonists' growing desire for independence from British rule.
Two Treatises of Government: The Two Treatises of Government is a political work by John Locke, published in 1689, that outlines his ideas about government and human nature. The first treatise critiques the concept of divine right monarchy, while the second articulates Locke's belief in natural rights and the social contract, which became foundational to modern democratic thought and heavily influenced the philosophical foundations of the American Revolution.