AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
8.5 Decolonization After 1900
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Defining Decolonization
Decolonization refers to the process through which former colonies—primarily in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean—gained independence from European imperial powers. This movement accelerated after World War II, as anti-colonial sentiment grew globally and imperial powers faced economic strain and mounting pressure to deconstruct their empires.
The path to independence varied widely. Some countries achieved it through negotiation, while others resorted to armed struggle. Regardless of method, decolonization reshaped global politics, led to the creation of new nations, and forced former imperial powers to redefine their international roles.
Paths to Independence Across the World
India: Nonviolent Resistance and Partition
The independence movement in India had been growing since the early 20th century, especially after Britain failed to grant self-rule following Indian contributions in World War I.
- The Indian National Congress (INC), led by Mohandas Gandhi, adopted nonviolent methods such as civil disobedience and boycotts to protest British rule.
- In 1947, India gained independence through negotiation. However, religious tensions between Hindus and Muslims led to the partition of India and Pakistan, resulting in widespread violence and displacement.
⭐ Gandhi’s strategy of nonviolent resistance inspired later global civil rights movements and marked a shift in how anti-colonial struggles could be waged.
Ghana (British Gold Coast): Political Organization and Protest
Ghana was the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence from colonial rule.
- Kwame Nkrumah, a Western-educated leader, organized the Convention People’s Party to demand self-rule.
- Through strikes, boycotts, and political mobilization, Ghana negotiated its independence from Britain in 1957, largely without bloodshed.
Kenya: Armed Resistance and Nationalism
Unlike Ghana, Kenya’s path to independence was more violent.
- The Mau Mau Rebellion (1952–1960) was a nationalist uprising primarily led by the Kikuyu ethnic group against British land policies and colonial rule.
- Britain responded with brutal military suppression and mass detentions.
Despite the bloodshed, international pressure and continued resistance led to Kenya’s independence in 1963.
Algeria: Guerrilla Warfare Against French Rule
Decolonization in Algeria was among the most violent of the post-WWII era.
- The National Liberation Front (FLN) launched a guerrilla war against French forces in 1954.
- The war involved urban bombings, torture, and massacres. French society was bitterly divided over the conflict.
- Algeria gained independence in 1962 following the Evian Accords and mounting international pressure.
⭐ The Algerian War exposed the deep costs of colonialism and shaped France’s future military and diplomatic strategies.
French West Africa: Political Reform and Gradual Negotiation
In contrast to Algeria, many French colonies in West Africa followed a negotiated path to independence.
- French policies shifted after WWII, allowing local participation in governance through laws like the Loi-Cadre.
- By 1960, territories such as Senegal, Niger, and Mali gained independence with limited violence.
Vietnam (French Indochina): Communist Nationalism and War
Vietnam’s decolonization was long and complex:
- Ho Chi Minh, a communist and nationalist leader, formed the Viet Minh to fight for Vietnamese independence.
- After defeating the French at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, Vietnam was temporarily divided into communist North and anti-communist South.
- Continued U.S. involvement led to the prolonged Vietnam War, which ended in reunification in 1975.
⭐ Vietnam illustrates how Cold War dynamics influenced decolonization, especially in regions where communism took root.
Nigeria: Federal Independence and Ethnic Tensions
Nigeria, rich in natural resources and home to diverse ethnic groups, gained independence from Britain in 1960.
- Political tensions soon emerged between regions, especially among the Igbo, Hausa-Fulani, and Yoruba ethnic groups.
- In 1967, the Igbo-dominated southeast attempted to secede as Biafra, sparking a civil war.
- The Biafran War lasted until 1970 and resulted in mass famine and deaths.
Angola: Colonial War and Civil Conflict
Angola’s decolonization was part of a broader wave of anti-Portuguese resistance.
- Independence movements clashed with Portuguese forces starting in the 1960s.
- Portugal’s Carnation Revolution in 1974 ended authoritarian rule and triggered decolonization.
- Angola declared independence in 1975, but was immediately plunged into a civil war between rival factions, often backed by Cold War superpowers.
Comparative Overview of Decolonization Movements
| Region/Country | Colonial Power | Method of Independence | Key Leader(s) | Nature of Struggle |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| India | Britain | Negotiation | Gandhi, INC | Nonviolent, Partition |
| Ghana | Britain | Negotiation | Kwame Nkrumah | Peaceful Protests |
| Kenya | Britain | Armed Struggle | Mau Mau (Kikuyu leaders) | Violent Rebellion |
| Algeria | France | Armed Struggle | FLN | Guerilla Warfare |
| Vietnam | France | Armed Struggle | Ho Chi Minh | Cold War Proxy Conflict |
| French W. Africa | France | Negotiation | Léopold Senghor (Senegal) | Gradual Decolonization |
| Nigeria | Britain | Negotiation | Nnamdi Azikiwe, others | Civil War Post-Independence |
| Angola | Portugal | Armed Struggle | MPLA, UNITA, FNLA | Colonial & Civil War |
Broader Themes of Decolonization
- Nationalist movements were shaped by both Western education and traditional leadership.
- Cold War rivalries influenced the outcome of decolonization, especially where communism or U.S. intervention played a role.
- Former colonies struggled with ethnic division, border disputes, and economic dependence, which often stemmed from imperial boundaries and resource exploitation.
- Not all independence movements succeeded. In places like Quebec, efforts at secession (led by the Quebecois separatist movement) failed, but revealed broader global trends in self-determination.
Key Terms to Review (29)
Algeria: Algeria is a North African country that gained independence from France in 1962 after a protracted and violent struggle known as the Algerian War of Independence. This conflict was a significant example of decolonization after 1900, showcasing the intense nationalist movements that emerged in various colonized regions as people sought self-determination and autonomy.
Angola: Angola is a country located in Southern Africa, bordered by Namibia, Zambia, and the Atlantic Ocean. It became a focal point for European expansion during the late 15th century, particularly due to the demand for slave labor and the establishment of the slave trade. In the context of resistance to European expansion, Angola's struggles against Portuguese colonization were significant, particularly during the 19th century. The nation later played a crucial role in the decolonization movement after World War II, gaining independence from Portugal in 1975 after a protracted liberation struggle.
Anti-Colonial Movements: Anti-Colonial Movements are efforts by colonized people to resist and overthrow colonial rule and foreign domination. These movements emerged in response to the exploitation, oppression, and cultural erasure imposed by imperial powers, often leading to significant political, social, and economic changes in the affected regions.
Angolan Civil War: The Angolan Civil War was a protracted conflict that lasted from 1975 to 2002, primarily between the MPLA and UNITA factions in Angola following the country’s independence from Portugal. This war was heavily influenced by the Cold War dynamics, as it drew in support from the Soviet Union and Cuba for the MPLA, while the United States and South Africa backed UNITA, reflecting broader global tensions.
Biafra Secessionist Movement: The Biafra Secessionist Movement was a political and military campaign in Nigeria aimed at establishing the independent Republic of Biafra from 1967 to 1970. This movement arose in response to ethnic tensions, political instability, and economic disparities following Nigeria's independence, ultimately leading to a brutal civil war known as the Nigerian Civil War or Biafran War.
British Gold Coast (Ghana): The British Gold Coast, known today as Ghana, was a British colony located along the West African coast from the late 19th century until its independence in 1957. It played a critical role in the broader context of decolonization after 1900, representing a significant movement towards self-governance and independence in Africa, as well as the struggle against colonial exploitation and economic control.
Canada: Canada is a North American country known for its vast landscapes, diverse culture, and strong economy. As a member of the British Commonwealth, Canada has played significant roles in global conflicts, the process of decolonization, and the development of international institutions that reflect its commitment to peace and cooperation.
Convention People’s Party: The Convention People’s Party (CPP) is a political party in Ghana, founded in 1949 by Kwame Nkrumah. It emerged as a key player in the struggle for Ghana's independence from British colonial rule and became the ruling party after independence in 1957, symbolizing a significant shift in African politics during the wave of decolonization after 1900.
Decolonization: Decolonization is the process through which colonies gain independence from colonial powers, leading to the establishment of sovereign nations. This term is closely linked to the global shifts in political power after World War II, as many nations sought to assert their rights and identities outside of colonial rule.
French Indochina (Vietnam): French Indochina was a colonial territory in Southeast Asia, which included modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, established by France in the mid-19th century. The region became a focal point of decolonization movements after World War II as nationalist leaders sought to gain independence from French colonial rule.
French West Africa: French West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in West Africa, established in the late 19th century and lasting until the mid-20th century. It played a pivotal role in the context of decolonization after 1900 as it became a focal point for anti-colonial movements and independence efforts across the region.
General Yakubu Gowon: General Yakubu Gowon was a Nigerian military officer who served as the head of state of Nigeria from 1966 to 1975. He came to power following a coup and played a pivotal role during the Nigerian Civil War, which occurred from 1967 to 1970, influencing Nigeria's post-colonial state and its journey toward nation-building.
Ho Chi Minh: Ho Chi Minh was a Vietnamese revolutionary leader who played a crucial role in the struggle for Vietnam's independence from French colonial rule and the subsequent establishment of a communist state. His leadership significantly influenced the spread of communism in Southeast Asia and contributed to decolonization efforts around the world.
Indian National Congress (INC): The Indian National Congress (INC) is a political party in India that was founded in 1885, primarily to give a voice to Indians in the colonial administration and to advocate for greater rights and self-governance. It played a pivotal role in India's struggle for independence from British rule, evolving from a platform for moderate reforms to a leading force for national liberation in the early 20th century, marking a significant chapter in the story of decolonization after 1900.
Indochinese Communist Party: The Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) was a revolutionary political party founded in 1930 to promote communism and independence in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It played a crucial role in the decolonization process after World War II, particularly in mobilizing nationalist sentiments against French colonial rule and later against American involvement in the region.
Kenya: Kenya is an East African nation that gained independence from British colonial rule in 1963. It played a pivotal role in the broader process of decolonization across Africa, marked by political movements and social upheavals as various groups sought self-determination and national identity following World War II.
Kikuyu Ethnic Group: The Kikuyu ethnic group is the largest ethnic community in Kenya, known for their rich cultural heritage and significant role in the country’s history, especially during the period of decolonization. Their involvement in the struggle against British colonial rule, particularly through the Mau Mau Uprising, highlights their quest for land rights and self-governance. The Kikuyu have played a crucial part in shaping modern Kenya's political landscape and identity.
Kwame Nkrumah: Kwame Nkrumah was a prominent Ghanaian politician and activist who became the first Prime Minister and President of Ghana, leading the country to independence from British colonial rule in 1957. He played a key role in the broader movement of decolonization across Africa and promoted Pan-Africanism during the Cold War, advocating for unity among African nations.
Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu: Lieutenant Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu was a Nigerian military officer and political leader who is best known for his role as the leader of the secessionist state of Biafra during the Nigerian Civil War from 1967 to 1970. His actions were pivotal in the context of decolonization in Africa, as they reflected the struggles for self-determination and the impact of colonial legacies on ethnic tensions within newly independent nations.
Loi-Cadre: The Loi-Cadre, or Framework Law, was a pivotal piece of legislation passed in 1956 by the French government that aimed to provide a framework for the governance of its colonies in Africa. This law marked a significant shift toward decolonization by granting limited autonomy to French colonies and acknowledging their aspirations for self-governance, reflecting the broader global movement toward independence during the mid-20th century.
Mahatma Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent leader in the Indian independence movement against British colonial rule, known for his philosophy of nonviolent resistance, or 'satyagraha.' His efforts inspired global movements for civil rights and freedom, making him a pivotal figure in the context of decolonization and social reform.
Mau Mau Movement: The Mau Mau Movement was a nationalist uprising in Kenya during the 1950s, primarily involving the Kikuyu people, who sought to end British colonial rule and reclaim land. This movement became known for its violent resistance against colonial authorities and its role in the broader context of decolonization in Africa, symbolizing the struggle for independence and self-determination.
National Liberation Front (FLN): The National Liberation Front (FLN) was a revolutionary political and military organization in Algeria that played a key role in the country's struggle for independence from French colonial rule beginning in 1954. The FLN united various nationalist groups, employing guerrilla warfare and political strategies to mobilize the Algerian population and gain international support, significantly influencing the broader process of decolonization during the mid-20th century.
Nationalist Sentiments: Nationalist sentiments refer to the feelings of pride, loyalty, and devotion that individuals have toward their nation, often leading to the desire for self-determination and independence from colonial or foreign rule. This term is crucial in understanding the motivations behind decolonization movements after 1900, as colonized peoples sought to assert their identity and rights while challenging imperial powers.
Niger: Niger is a landlocked country in West Africa, known for its rich cultural heritage and diverse ethnic groups. It gained independence from French colonial rule in 1960, marking a significant moment in the wave of decolonization that swept across Africa during the mid-20th century, leading to the establishment of national identities and governments free from colonial influence.
Nigeria: Nigeria is a West African country, known for its rich cultural diversity, abundant natural resources, and complex history of colonialism and post-colonial challenges. Following the end of British colonial rule in 1960, Nigeria became a focal point of decolonization, navigating issues of ethnic tensions, economic development, and governance while striving for national unity and identity.
Quebecois Separatist Movement: The Quebecois Separatist Movement is a political and social movement that seeks to promote the independence of Quebec from Canada, emphasizing the province's distinct French-speaking culture and identity. This movement emerged in the mid-20th century as a response to perceived economic and political marginalization, advocating for greater autonomy and ultimately full sovereignty for Quebec.
Senegal: Senegal is a West African nation located on the Atlantic coast, known for its rich cultural heritage and historical significance, particularly as a center of the transatlantic slave trade. The country played a crucial role in the decolonization movements of the mid-20th century, advocating for independence from French colonial rule and becoming one of the first sub-Saharan African nations to gain independence in 1960.
World War II: World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations and resulting in significant military, political, and social changes. It was marked by widespread atrocities, the rise of totalitarian regimes, and the use of advanced technology in warfare, ultimately reshaping the global order.