AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions from 1750-1900
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:MLA
The period from 1750 to 1900 witnessed a powerful wave of revolutions that reshaped global politics. Influenced by Enlightenment ideals like liberty, natural rights, and the social contract, people across the world began to challenge monarchies, colonial rule, and social hierarchies. These revolutions sparked the formation of new nation-states and spread democratic ideals that reshaped national identities and global power structures.
Enlightenment: The Spark of Revolution
The Enlightenment was a philosophical movement in 18th-century Europe that emphasized reason, individualism, and natural rights.
- Thinkers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Baron de Montesquieu promoted ideas such as:
- Government by consent of the governed
- Popular sovereignty
- Separation of powers
- Natural rights to life, liberty, and property
These ideas challenged the legitimacy of absolute monarchies and became the ideological backbone of many revolutionary movements.
⭐ Key Idea: Enlightenment principles inspired revolutions around the globe, promoting nationalism, democracy, and constitutionalism.
Atlantic Revolutions: A Chain Reaction
| Revolution | Causes | Key Enlightenment Ideas | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|
| American (1775–83) | British taxation without representation | Popular sovereignty, natural rights | U.S. independence, constitutional republic |
| French (1789–99) | Inequality, debt, and the Estates system | Natural rights, equality before the law | End of monarchy, Declaration of Rights of Man, rise of Napoleon |
| Haitian (1791–1804) | Slavery and colonial exploitation | Liberty and equality for all | First successful slave revolt, first Black republic in the Americas |
| Latin American | Social/racial hierarchies, Creole resentment | Independence, popular sovereignty | Creation of new republics; abolition of slavery in some regions |
The American Revolution (1775–1783)
British colonies in North America rebelled against imperial control. After the Seven Years’ War, Britain imposed taxes on colonists to cover war debts.
- Colonists demanded representation in Parliament (“No taxation without representation!”)
- The Declaration of Independence (1776) listed grievances against King George III and was inspired by Enlightenment ideals.
- With help from France, the colonies won the war and created a republican democracy with a constitution and separation of powers.
⭐ The American Revolution set a global precedent for challenging monarchies and building representative governments.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
France was deeply in debt and still reeling from its role in the American Revolution and the Seven Years’ War. Social inequality under the Estates System further fueled unrest.
- The Third Estate (commoners), who made up 97% of the population, had little power.
- The National Assembly formed in protest and issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, asserting natural rights and democratic values.
- Radicalism led to the Reign of Terror, with thousands executed by guillotine.
- Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power, ending the revolution but spreading revolutionary ideals through his conquests.
⭐ The French Revolution reshaped the political and social fabric of Europe and introduced the idea of national citizenship.
The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
Inspired by events in France, enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) launched a successful revolt.
- Led by Toussaint L’Ouverture, maroon societies fought against French planters.
- Haiti became the first post-colonial, Black-led republic, abolishing slavery and redistributing land.
- Napoleon's attempts to reclaim the colony failed, as his focus shifted to Europe.
⭐ Haiti’s revolution was the first and only successful slave uprising that established a nation.
Latin American/Creole Revolutions (1810–1830s)
Colonial Latin American society was deeply hierarchical.
- Creoles (Europeans born in the Americas) resented Peninsulares (Europeans born in Spain).
- Influenced by Enlightenment ideals and earlier revolutions, Latin Americans sought independence.
Simón Bolívar led independence movements in northern South America.
- His Jamaica Letter (1815) emphasized unity and liberty for Latin Americans.
- Despite success, the region did not unite into a single nation (unlike the U.S.).
⭐ While Creoles gained power, Indigenous and Afro-descended peoples remained marginalized.
Puerto Rico & Cuba: Calls for Freedom
Spain's last American colonies—Puerto Rico and Cuba—also saw revolutionary movements.
- Lola Rodríguez de Tió, a Puerto Rican poet, used Enlightenment themes in her writing to call for independence.
- Both colonies were freed from Spanish rule by 1900, but U.S. imperialism soon followed (e.g., Guantanamo Bay in Cuba).
⭐ Enlightenment-inspired revolutions also influenced Caribbean and island nationalist movements.
New Zealand Wars (1845–1872)
The Māori, indigenous peoples of New Zealand, resisted British colonization.
- British industrialization and imperialism pushed them to annex land.
- The Māori developed a stronger shared identity and nationalism in response to conquest.
- After 40 years of resistance, the British defeated them by 1872.
⭐ Colonial resistance often produced new forms of nationalism among indigenous peoples.
Nationalism and Unification Movements in Europe
Nationalism also fueled unification efforts in Europe, leading to the formation of new nation-states.
Italian Unification
- Italy had been divided into kingdoms since the fall of Rome.
- Count Camillo di Cavour used diplomacy and Realpolitik (pragmatic politics) to unify the north.
- Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini helped unify the south.
⭐ National identity (common language, history, and religion) became a unifying force.
German Unification
- Led by Otto von Bismarck, who also used Realpolitik.
- He engineered wars with Denmark, Austria, and France to unite German-speaking peoples.
- In 1871, the German Empire was declared.
⭐ German unification laid the groundwork for nationalism-fueled tensions in the 20th century.
Balkan Nationalism and the Ottoman Decline
The Ottoman Empire was a multiethnic empire in decline by the 19th century.
- Nationalist movements grew among Balkan peoples like Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, and Romanians.
- These groups demanded independence based on shared culture, language, and religion.
- The Ottomans struggled to maintain control amid internal divisions and external pressure.
| Region | Empire Ruling Before | Nationalist Group(s) | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Greece | Ottoman Empire | Greek nationalists | Independence in 1830 |
| Serbia | Ottoman Empire | Serbian nationalists | Autonomy by mid-19th century |
| Bulgaria | Ottoman Empire | Bulgarian nationalists | Independence by early 20th century |
| Romania | Ottoman Empire | Romanian nationalists | United in 1859; independence in 1877 |
⭐ Nationalism both unified and fragmented regions depending on context.
Key Terms to Review (46)
American Revolution: The American Revolution was a colonial revolt against British rule that lasted from 1775 to 1783, resulting in the independence of the thirteen American colonies and the formation of the United States. This revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas, leading to the establishment of democratic principles and the questioning of traditional authority.
Balkan Nationalism: Balkan Nationalism refers to the movement among various ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula during the 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for self-determination and independence from empires like the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian. This rise of national identity was influenced by a mix of cultural revival, historical grievances, and the spread of Enlightenment ideas, leading to significant political upheaval in the region.
British North America: British North America refers to the territories in North America that were under British control during the colonial period, primarily from the 17th century until the American Revolution in the late 18th century. This term encompasses various colonies, including Canada and parts of the present-day United States, which became central to discussions of nationalism, identity, and governance in the context of revolutions and movements for independence during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Bulgaria: Bulgaria is a country located in Southeast Europe, which emerged as a significant national entity during the 19th century, driven by rising nationalism and movements for independence from Ottoman rule. The Bulgarian struggle for autonomy and later independence is a key example of how nationalism fueled revolutions in the region, while its geopolitical significance played a critical role in the tensions leading up to World War I.
Constitutional Government: A constitutional government is a system of governance in which the powers of the government are limited by a constitution, ensuring that the rights of individuals and the rule of law are upheld. This form of government emerged as a response to absolute monarchies and is characterized by the separation of powers, checks and balances, and the protection of civil liberties. The rise of constitutional governments during the period from 1750 to 1900 was closely tied to revolutionary movements and the quest for national identity.
Count di Cavour: Count di Cavour was an Italian statesman and a key figure in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. As Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia, he played a crucial role in diplomatic and military strategies that led to the unification of various Italian states into a single nation. His political vision and pragmatic approach to governance were significant in fostering nationalism and driving the revolutionary movements that characterized this period.
Creoles: Creoles were people of European descent born in the Americas, particularly during the colonial period. They played a significant role in shaping the social, political, and economic landscape of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, often feeling a sense of superiority over those born in Europe while simultaneously being marginalized by the colonial authorities.
Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence is a historic document adopted on July 4, 1776, declaring the American colonies' separation from British rule. It articulated the Enlightenment principles of individual rights, government by consent, and the right of the people to overthrow an unjust government, which fueled the spirit of nationalism and revolution across the globe.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It sought to challenge established norms and promote ideas such as liberty, equality, and scientific inquiry, influencing revolutions and societal changes worldwide.
Estates General: The Estates General was a representative assembly in France that consisted of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. This assembly played a crucial role in the lead-up to the French Revolution, as it highlighted the inequalities between these groups and the grievances of the Third Estate, which ultimately fueled demands for political reform and social change during a time of rising nationalism and revolutionary fervor.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which profoundly affected French and global history. It marked the end of absolute monarchy, the rise of democratic ideals, and the emergence of nationalism, influencing revolutions around the world.
German Unification: German Unification refers to the process of uniting various independent German states into a single nation-state under the leadership of Prussia in the late 19th century. This movement was fueled by a rising sense of nationalism, economic integration driven by industrialization, and political maneuvering by key figures like Otto von Bismarck. The culmination of this unification was the proclamation of the German Empire in 1871, which marked a significant shift in European politics and national identities.
Giuseppe Garibaldi: Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general, nationalist, and key figure in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. Known for his military campaigns and passionate commitment to the cause of Italian nationalism, Garibaldi played a crucial role in the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, embodying the spirit of the revolutionary movements that characterized this era of national unification across Europe.
Giuseppe Mazzini: Giuseppe Mazzini was an influential Italian nationalist and revolutionary who played a key role in the unification of Italy during the 19th century. He founded the political movement known as Young Italy, which aimed to promote the idea of a unified Italian nation and encouraged the people to fight for their national identity and freedom from foreign domination. His ideas contributed significantly to the rise of nationalism in Europe during this era.
Great Britain: Great Britain is an island nation located off the northwestern coast of mainland Europe, consisting of England, Scotland, and Wales. Its historical influence shaped global political, economic, and cultural landscapes, particularly during periods of nationalism, imperialism, and industrialization.
Greece: Greece is a country located in southeastern Europe known for its rich history and cultural heritage, particularly as the cradle of Western civilization. In the context of nationalism and revolutions during the 18th and 19th centuries, Greece was a focal point for nationalist movements that sought independence from Ottoman rule, reflecting broader themes of identity, self-determination, and national pride.
Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place between 1791 and 1804, resulting in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas. This revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals and the wave of nationalism sweeping through the world, marking a significant challenge to European colonialism and slavery.
Italian Unification: Italian Unification, also known as the Risorgimento, was the political and social process that consolidated the various states of the Italian peninsula into the single nation of Italy during the 19th century. This movement was driven by nationalism, a growing sense of cultural identity among Italians, and the desire for political independence from foreign rule and internal fragmentation.
Jamaica Letter: The Jamaica Letter is a document written by Simón Bolívar in 1815, expressing his thoughts on the struggles for independence in Latin America and the future of the region. In this letter, Bolívar articulates his vision for a united Latin America and reflects on the challenges faced by revolutionary movements, connecting his ideas to the broader themes of nationalism and revolutions during the 19th century.
Latin American Creole Revolutions: The Latin American Creole Revolutions were a series of uprisings and movements that occurred in the early 19th century, leading to the independence of various Latin American territories from Spanish colonial rule. Fueled by Enlightenment ideas, nationalistic sentiments, and dissatisfaction with colonial governance, these revolutions were primarily led by Creoles, people of European descent born in the Americas, who sought to establish their own authority and reject the dominance of Peninsulares, or those born in Spain.
Lola Rodriguez de Tio: Lola Rodriguez de Tio was a Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and political activist known for her strong advocacy for Puerto Rican independence and her promotion of nationalism through her literary works. Her writings were significant during a time when many Latin American countries were struggling for independence from colonial powers, and they resonated deeply with the sentiments of nationalism and the quest for self-determination.
Maori Tribes: Maori tribes, known as iwi, are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand, characterized by their rich cultural heritage, language, and social organization. These tribes played a significant role in shaping New Zealand's identity and were heavily influenced by nationalist movements during the 19th century, especially as European colonization intensified.
Maroon Communities: Maroon communities were settlements established by enslaved Africans who escaped from plantations in the Americas and the Caribbean, forming their own societies in remote areas. These communities often sought to maintain their cultural identities and resist colonial oppression, becoming symbols of resistance against slavery during the period of nationalism and revolutions from 1750 to 1900.
Mestizos: Mestizos are individuals of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry, who emerged as a distinct social class in the colonial societies of Latin America. This blending of cultures and races was a significant result of European colonization, leading to new social hierarchies and cultural identities that would play a critical role in shaping nationalist movements and class relations in the region.
Napoleonic Codes: The Napoleonic Codes, formally known as the Civil Code of 1804, were a set of laws established under Napoleon Bonaparte that reformed the legal framework in France. This legal code aimed to create a unified and rational system of laws that emphasized principles such as equality before the law, secular authority, and property rights. The codes played a crucial role in shaping modern legal systems and reflected the rise of nationalism during a time of revolutions across Europe.
National Assembly: The National Assembly was a key political body formed during the early stages of the French Revolution in 1789, representing the common people and challenging the authority of the monarchy. It marked a significant shift towards representative democracy and the establishment of constitutional government in France, embodying the rise of nationalism and revolutionary sentiments that swept across Europe during this period.
Natural Rights: Natural rights are the fundamental human rights that individuals possess simply by being human, often considered to be universal and inalienable. These rights include life, liberty, and property, and form the philosophical basis for individual freedom and democratic governance. The concept gained prominence during the Enlightenment, significantly influencing revolutionary movements and the development of modern political thought.
New Zealand Wars: The New Zealand Wars were a series of conflicts fought from the 1840s to the 1870s between British colonial forces and various Māori groups in New Zealand. These wars were rooted in issues of land ownership and sovereignty, reflecting the broader themes of nationalism and colonialism during a time when many indigenous populations were asserting their rights against colonial expansion.
No Taxation without Representation: No Taxation without Representation is a political slogan that emerged in the 18th century, primarily among the American colonists, asserting that it is unjust to impose taxes on individuals without their consent through elected representatives. This principle became a rallying cry for those opposing British taxation policies and is closely linked to the broader movements of nationalism and revolutions during this period, highlighting the importance of political representation in governance and fueling demands for self-determination.
Otto von Bismarck: Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman who served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. He is best known for his role in unifying Germany through a series of strategic wars and diplomatic maneuvers, which were driven by nationalist sentiments and aimed at consolidating power under Prussian leadership.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Peninsulares: Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain or Portugal who held high social, political, and economic status in the colonies of Latin America during the colonial period. They represented the top tier of the social hierarchy, often controlling the wealth and power of the colonial administration, which created tensions with other social classes, particularly Creoles, leading to revolutionary movements later on.
Polynesian Migration Patterns: Polynesian Migration Patterns refer to the movement of Polynesian peoples across the Pacific Ocean, beginning around 1500 BCE and continuing through the early modern period. These migrations led to the settlement of numerous islands in the Pacific, including Hawaii, New Zealand, and Easter Island, and are significant for understanding cultural exchange, adaptation, and social organization within these communities during periods of change and upheaval.
Puerto Rico & Cuba: Puerto Rico and Cuba are two Caribbean islands with rich histories that became focal points of nationalist movements and revolutions in the late 19th century. Both islands were under colonial rule, with Puerto Rico as a territory of Spain and later the United States, while Cuba fought for independence from Spanish rule. Their struggles for autonomy reflect broader themes of nationalism and anti-colonial sentiments that defined the era.
Realpolitik: Realpolitik refers to a pragmatic and strategic approach to politics that prioritizes practicality over ideology or moral considerations. This approach emerged prominently during the 19th century, particularly in the context of statecraft and diplomacy, influencing various nationalist movements and revolutions by emphasizing the importance of power dynamics and national interests over ideals.
Romania: Romania is a nation-state located in Southeastern Europe, formed in the 19th century through the unification of the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia. This emergence was fueled by nationalistic sentiments and revolutions that swept across Europe, embodying the struggle for national identity and self-determination during a period marked by political upheaval and the decline of empires.
Separation of Powers: Separation of Powers is a political doctrine that divides the responsibilities and powers of government into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from gaining too much power. This system, often characterized by the division into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, promotes accountability and checks and balances within a government structure, which was heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinkers. The principle was adopted in various revolutionary movements as societies sought to create fairer governance based on reason and individual rights.
Serbia: Serbia is a landlocked country located in Southeast Europe, known for its rich cultural history and significant role in the Balkan region. Throughout the 19th century, Serbia emerged as a national entity driven by nationalism, leading to its independence from the Ottoman Empire and playing a key role in the tensions that ignited World War I.
Seven Years’ War: The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving major world powers like Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal. Often referred to as the first 'world war,' it was marked by battles in Europe, North America, the Caribbean, West Africa, and India. The outcomes of the war had significant implications for colonial empires and fueled nationalist sentiments in various regions.
Simon Bolivar: Simon Bolivar was a South American revolutionary leader who played a key role in the independence movements of several Latin American countries from Spanish rule in the early 19th century. Known as 'El Libertador', he is celebrated for his vision of a united Latin America, reflecting the rise of nationalism and the push for independence during this period of revolutions.
Social Contract: The Social Contract is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of a governing body in exchange for protection of their remaining rights. This idea became foundational during the Enlightenment, influencing revolutionary thought and the development of modern political systems focused on individual rights and national sovereignty.
Storming the Bastille: The Storming of the Bastille was a significant event that occurred on July 14, 1789, when revolutionaries in Paris stormed the fortress-prison known as the Bastille, symbolizing the end of the king's absolute power and the beginning of the French Revolution. This event is often viewed as a key turning point in the rise of nationalism and revolutionary fervor across Europe, as it inspired other movements seeking liberty and equality.
Tabula Rasa: Tabula Rasa is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals are born as a 'blank slate,' with no innate knowledge or preconceptions, and that all understanding comes from experience and perception. This idea emphasizes the importance of environment and education in shaping human behavior and thought, which aligns with the values of reason and individualism during a period focused on enlightenment, as well as the rise of national identities and revolutionary sentiments fueled by the belief in human potential and societal reform.
Three Estates: The Three Estates refer to the social hierarchy in pre-revolutionary France, consisting of the First Estate (clergy), the Second Estate (nobility), and the Third Estate (commoners). This division played a crucial role in shaping French society and politics, contributing to widespread discontent that eventually fueled revolutionary movements during the period of nationalism and revolutions from 1750 to 1900.
Toussaint L’Ouverture: Toussaint L’Ouverture was a prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution who played a crucial role in leading enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) to fight for their freedom and independence from French colonial rule. His leadership marked a significant moment in the rise of nationalism and the quest for independence during a time when revolutions were reshaping societies across the globe.
United States: The United States is a federal republic established in 1776, formed from thirteen British colonies in North America. It has been a significant player in global politics, economics, and culture, influencing various movements related to nationalism, industrialization, and international conflicts throughout its history.