AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
5.1 The Enlightenment
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The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individual liberty, and empirical evidence. This era challenged traditional sources of authority—such as monarchy and religion—and reshaped how people understood politics, society, and human rights. As Enlightenment ideas spread across the Atlantic, they laid the ideological foundation for political revolutions, reform movements, and growing demands for liberty and equality.
Key Ideas and Philosophical Shifts
The Enlightenment encouraged people to question long-standing traditions, apply logic and reason to social and political life, and rethink the role of government and religion.
- Reason over Revelation: Enlightenment thinkers believed truth came from observation and logic—not divine revelation or tradition.
- Natural Rights: Thinkers like John Locke argued all humans are born with basic rights—life, liberty, and property—that governments must protect.
- Social Contract Theory: Philosophers claimed governments existed only because people consented to them. If rulers violated the people's trust, citizens had the right to rebel.
- Empiricism: The idea that knowledge comes from sensory experience, experiments, and evidence—rather than religious doctrine.
Major Enlightenment Philosophers
| Thinker | Key Ideas |
|---|---|
| John Locke | Natural rights; social contract; right to revolt if government fails its duties |
| Thomas Hobbes | People need a strong ruler to avoid chaos; favored absolute monarchy |
| Jean-Jacques Rousseau | Social contract must represent the general will; governments must reflect the common good |
| Baron de Montesquieu | Separation of powers; checks and balances to prevent tyranny |
| Voltaire | Advocated freedom of speech, religion, and separation of church and state |
| Adam Smith | Free markets and capitalism; individuals acting in self-interest benefit society as a whole |
| Thomas Paine | Advocated American independence and democratic government; wrote Common Sense |
⭐ "Tabula Rasa": John Locke’s idea that people are born with a "blank slate" helped break down rigid class hierarchies. It suggested that one's future was shaped by experience—not birthright.
Challenging Old Hierarchies
Before the Enlightenment, society was rigidly hierarchical—monarchs, nobles, and religious leaders claimed divine authority. But Enlightenment ideas reexamined the role of the individual in society:
- Political: Absolutism came under fire; people demanded constitutional governments and representative assemblies.
- Social: Calls for equality and justice questioned institutions like slavery, serfdom, and patriarchy.
- Cultural: Religious dogma was challenged by rationalism, deism, and scientific thought.
These ideological shifts threatened existing elites and led to significant social and political tension throughout Europe and its colonies.
Nationalism and the Rise of the Nation-State
The Enlightenment inspired a powerful new force in global history: nationalism. This idea emphasized a shared identity based on language, culture, ethnicity, or history.
- Nationalism helped unify fragmented regions—like the Italian and German states.
- Colonists used nationalism to justify revolutions—such as the American Revolution.
- Oppressed ethnic groups began demanding self-rule based on shared identity.
While nationalism fostered unity and resistance to imperialism, it also encouraged exclusivity and conflict between groups.
The Enlightenment and Reform Movements
As Enlightenment ideals spread, marginalized groups began demanding rights and inclusion. These reform movements challenged political, gender, and social norms:
Movements for Social and Political Reform
| Reform Movement | Core Goal | Enlightenment Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Abolitionism | End slavery and the slave trade | Equality, natural rights |
| Feminism | Expand women’s rights, including suffrage | Individualism, social contract, liberty |
| End of Serfdom | Free peasants tied to land | Personal liberty, dignity |
| Expanded Suffrage | Extend the vote to more (or all) men | Government must reflect the will of the people |
The Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, the Seneca Falls Convention reinterpreted the Declaration of Independence to include women. Their “Declaration of Sentiments” was a revolutionary call for women's suffrage, education, and legal equality.
⭐ “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal.” – Declaration of Sentiments, 1848
Enlightenment and Religion
Many Enlightenment thinkers criticized organized religion’s influence over society and government:
- Deism became popular. Deists believed in a creator but rejected miracles, divine intervention, and religious dogma.
- Enlightenment thinkers promoted religious tolerance, freedom of conscience, and separation of church and state.
- While not anti-religion, many Enlightenment thinkers viewed religion as a private, not public, matter.
Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, famously removed supernatural elements from the Bible to produce the Jefferson Bible—a version aligned with reason and ethics.
New Ideologies: Enlightenment -ISMs
The Enlightenment gave rise to several new ideologies that shaped the modern world:
| Ideology | Description |
|---|---|
| Empiricism | Belief that knowledge comes from observation and experience |
| Classical Liberalism | Emphasized natural rights, individual liberty, and limited government |
| Classical Conservatism | Favored monarchy, tradition, and social hierarchy |
| Socialism | Advocated public ownership of the means of production |
| Utopian Socialism | Vision of ideal, cooperative societies with shared property and equality |
| Feminism | Advocated for women's equality and expanded roles in society |
| Nationalism | Loyalty to a shared national identity; sought political unity or independence |
| Abolitionism | Movement to end slavery and the slave trade |
| Zionism | Jewish nationalist movement to create a homeland in Palestine |
| Anti-Semitism | Prejudice and hostility toward Jews |
Conclusion
The Enlightenment transformed the intellectual landscape of the 18th century and beyond. It encouraged people to use reason, question tradition, and demand political rights. These ideals laid the groundwork for revolutionary movements around the world and inspired a range of social reform movements—from the abolition of slavery to the birth of modern feminism. At its core, the Enlightenment empowered individuals to reimagine the relationship between people, government, and society.
Key Terms to Review (38)
Abolitionism: Abolitionism is a movement aimed at ending the practice of slavery and the slave trade, advocating for the rights and freedom of enslaved individuals. This movement gained momentum during the Enlightenment as thinkers challenged traditional social hierarchies and promoted the principles of liberty and equality. Abolitionists sought to inspire moral outrage and legal reforms to dismantle slavery, which was increasingly viewed as incompatible with Enlightenment ideals of human rights and justice.
Adam Smith: Adam Smith was an 18th-century Scottish economist and philosopher, best known for his book 'The Wealth of Nations,' which laid the foundations for modern economics and capitalism. His ideas on free markets, self-interest, and the 'invisible hand' significantly influenced economic thought and practice during the Enlightenment and the Industrial Age.
American Revolution: The American Revolution was a colonial revolt against British rule that lasted from 1775 to 1783, resulting in the independence of the thirteen American colonies and the formation of the United States. This revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas, leading to the establishment of democratic principles and the questioning of traditional authority.
Anti-Semitism: Anti-Semitism refers to prejudice, discrimination, or hostility directed against Jews. This term encompasses a wide range of negative attitudes and beliefs about Jewish people, often rooted in stereotypes, conspiracy theories, and historical scapegoating. Throughout history, anti-Semitism has manifested in various forms, leading to social exclusion, violence, and systemic persecution of Jews in different societies.
Baron de Montesquieu: Baron de Montesquieu was a French political philosopher known for his influential works on political theory and the separation of powers in government. His ideas helped shape modern political thought during the Enlightenment, emphasizing the need for checks and balances within a government to prevent tyranny. Montesquieu's theories laid the groundwork for democratic governance and significantly impacted the formation of modern political systems.
Classical Conservatism: Classical Conservatism is a political philosophy that emphasizes the value of tradition, established institutions, and a cautious approach to change. It arose in response to the ideas of the Enlightenment, advocating for order and stability in society while resisting radical reforms that could disrupt social harmony. Classical Conservatives believe that human nature is flawed and that strong institutions are essential for maintaining social order and moral standards.
Classical Liberalism: Classical Liberalism is a political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, limited government, and the protection of private property rights. Rooted in Enlightenment ideas, it advocates for civil liberties, free markets, and the rule of law, shaping modern democratic societies and influencing various social movements. This ideology promotes the belief that people should have the autonomy to pursue their own interests as long as they do not infringe on the rights of others.
Deism: Deism is a philosophical belief that posits the existence of a creator who does not intervene in the universe after its creation. It emerged during the Enlightenment, reflecting a shift towards reason and observation rather than religious dogma. Deists believe that the creator can be understood through nature and reason, rather than through organized religion or sacred texts.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott were prominent American social activists, abolitionists, and early leaders of the women's rights movement in the 19th century. They are best known for organizing the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, which marked the beginning of the organized struggle for women's rights and highlighted the demand for women's suffrage, challenging traditional gender roles and advocating for equality during a time influenced by Enlightenment ideals.
Empiricism: Empiricism is a philosophical theory that emphasizes knowledge gained through sensory experience and evidence. It asserts that the only source of knowledge comes from what we can observe and measure, fundamentally shaping the approach to science and inquiry during the Enlightenment. This perspective shifted the focus away from reliance on intuition or religious doctrine, encouraging a systematic investigation of the world around us.
Enlightenment -ISMs: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement that emerged in Europe during the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It marked a significant shift in thought, advocating for the application of reason to all aspects of human life, leading to the development of various ideologies such as liberalism, rationalism, and empiricism.
Enslaved People Liberation Movement: The Enslaved People Liberation Movement refers to the various efforts and struggles led by enslaved individuals and their allies to resist bondage and attain freedom. This movement emerged in response to the harsh realities of slavery and drew inspiration from Enlightenment ideals, such as liberty, equality, and human rights, motivating enslaved people to fight for their own liberation and challenge oppressive systems.
Feminism: Feminism is a social and political movement advocating for the rights and equality of women in all aspects of life. It challenges historical gender inequalities and seeks to address issues such as suffrage, education, employment, and reproductive rights. The Enlightenment period played a crucial role in shaping feminist thought, as it emphasized reason, individualism, and the questioning of traditional authority, which laid the groundwork for women's rights activism.
German State Creation: German State Creation refers to the process of unifying various independent German-speaking states into a single nation-state in the 19th century, culminating in the establishment of the German Empire in 1871. This process was heavily influenced by nationalist ideas during the Enlightenment, which emphasized individual rights, citizenship, and the idea of a collective national identity among the German people.
Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection that took place between 1791 and 1804, resulting in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas. This revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals and the wave of nationalism sweeping through the world, marking a significant challenge to European colonialism and slavery.
Italian State Creation: Italian State Creation refers to the process during the 19th century through which various independent states and territories on the Italian peninsula unified to form the modern nation-state of Italy. This movement was significantly influenced by nationalism and the desire for political and social reform, particularly during the period of the Risorgimento.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an influential Enlightenment philosopher known for his ideas on social contract theory, the nature of human freedom, and the importance of popular sovereignty. His works challenged existing political norms and emphasized the inherent goodness of humanity, arguing that society corrupts individuals. Rousseau's thoughts played a significant role in shaping modern democratic and educational principles, influencing both revolutionary movements and the philosophical landscape during the Industrial Age.
John Locke: John Locke was an influential English philosopher in the 17th century, known as the 'Father of Liberalism.' His ideas centered around the concepts of natural rights, social contract theory, and government by consent, which profoundly impacted political thought during the Enlightenment and later shaped democratic principles in the Industrial Age.
Key Philosophers: Key philosophers during the Enlightenment were influential thinkers who challenged traditional beliefs and emphasized reason, individualism, and scientific inquiry. They laid the groundwork for modern political thought, ethics, and epistemology, advocating for ideas such as liberty, equality, and the social contract. Their works ignited movements that shaped modern democracies and human rights.
Monarchy: Monarchy is a form of government in which a single person, the monarch, holds supreme authority and typically inherits their position. This system often intertwines political power with cultural and religious significance, creating a centralized form of governance. Monarchies can vary widely, with some functioning as absolute, where the monarch wields unrestricted power, while others may be constitutional, sharing authority with elected bodies.
Nationalism: Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the interests and culture of a particular nation or group, often advocating for self-determination and the belief that individuals' loyalty should be to their nation above all else. This strong sense of national identity can influence political movements, cultural developments, and conflicts, shaping the course of history in profound ways.
Patriarchy: Patriarchy refers to a social system in which men hold primary power and dominate roles in leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. This system often marginalizes women and reinforces gender inequalities across various aspects of society. During the Enlightenment, the concept of patriarchy was challenged as thinkers began advocating for individual rights, questioning traditional authority, and promoting ideas of equality and reason.
Reason over Revelation: Reason over Revelation is the philosophical principle that emphasizes the importance of human reason and rational thought over divine revelation or religious doctrine as the primary source of knowledge and truth. This idea was a cornerstone of the Enlightenment, encouraging individuals to question traditional beliefs and institutions in favor of logic and empirical evidence.
Reform Movements: Reform movements are organized efforts aimed at improving specific issues within society, driven by the desire for change and progress. These movements often arise in response to social, political, or economic injustices and aim to create a more equitable and just society. During the Enlightenment, reform movements gained momentum as thinkers began advocating for individual rights, democracy, and social justice, influencing a wide range of areas from education to women's rights.
Seneca Falls Convention (1848): The Seneca Falls Convention was the first women's rights convention held in the United States, taking place in July 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York. This landmark event marked the beginning of the organized women's rights movement, where activists gathered to discuss the social, civil, and religious rights of women. It is closely connected to Enlightenment ideals of individual rights and equality, as it challenged traditional gender roles and called for equal treatment of women in society.
Serfdom Abolition Movement: The Serfdom Abolition Movement refers to a historical campaign aimed at ending the practice of serfdom, a system where peasants were tied to the land and subject to the control of landowners. This movement gained momentum during the Enlightenment, fueled by new ideas about individual rights, liberty, and equality, leading to significant social and economic transformations in various European societies.
Slavery: Slavery is a system where individuals are owned by others and are forced to work without pay, often under threat of violence or coercion. This dehumanizing institution has roots in various societies throughout history and significantly influenced social, economic, and political structures during the Enlightenment period. The Enlightenment, characterized by ideals of liberty and equality, sparked debates about human rights and the morality of slavery, leading to growing abolitionist movements.
Social Contract Theory: Social Contract Theory is a political philosophy that suggests that individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a society and establish a government in exchange for protection of their rights and maintenance of social order. This concept is closely tied to Enlightenment thinkers who advocated for the idea that government derives its legitimacy from the consent of the governed, fundamentally challenging the divine right of kings and traditional forms of authority.
Socialism: Socialism is an economic and political system that advocates for collective or governmental ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods. This ideology emerged as a response to the inequalities generated by capitalism, promoting social welfare and aiming to reduce class distinctions.
Tabula Rasa: Tabula Rasa is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals are born as a 'blank slate,' with no innate knowledge or preconceptions, and that all understanding comes from experience and perception. This idea emphasizes the importance of environment and education in shaping human behavior and thought, which aligns with the values of reason and individualism during a period focused on enlightenment, as well as the rise of national identities and revolutionary sentiments fueled by the belief in human potential and societal reform.
The Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It fostered a belief in human progress and the power of rational thought to understand and improve the world, significantly influencing political, social, and scientific developments during this era.
Thomas Hobbes: Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher known for his social contract theory, which argued that individuals consent to surrender some of their freedoms to a sovereign authority in exchange for security and order. His most famous work, 'Leviathan', presents a vision of a powerful government that maintains peace and prevents the chaos of the natural state, emphasizing the need for a strong central authority.
Thomas Paine: Thomas Paine was an influential Enlightenment thinker and political activist known for his writings that inspired revolutionary movements, particularly in America and France. His works, especially 'Common Sense' and 'The Rights of Man,' advocated for democracy, individual rights, and the rejection of monarchy, resonating deeply with Enlightenment ideals of reason and liberty.
Two Treatises of Government: The Two Treatises of Government is a work of political philosophy published in 1689 by John Locke, which outlines his ideas on government, natural rights, and the social contract. This influential text argues against absolute monarchy and presents the concept that government should be based on the consent of the governed, fundamentally shaping Enlightenment thought and modern democratic principles.
Utopian Socialism: Utopian Socialism is a political and economic theory that advocates for the establishment of ideal communities based on cooperative living and social equality, contrasting sharply with the existing capitalist system. This concept emerged during the Enlightenment, as thinkers began to critique the inequalities of industrial society and sought to create harmonious societies through shared ownership and communal living.
Voltaire: Voltaire was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, freedom of speech, and separation of church and state. His works challenged traditional authority and religious dogma, making him a key figure in the movement that questioned the established norms and promoted individual rights, which played a significant role in the development of modern political thought and revolutionary ideas.
Women's Rights Movement: The Women's Rights Movement refers to the social and political campaign aimed at achieving equal rights and opportunities for women, particularly in areas such as voting, education, employment, and reproductive rights. This movement emerged during the Enlightenment, which emphasized reason and individual rights, inspiring women to advocate for their own rights and challenge traditional gender roles and discrimination.
Zionism: Zionism is a nationalist movement that emerged in the late 19th century advocating for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This movement arose in response to widespread anti-Semitism and persecution faced by Jews in Europe, and it was influenced by ideas of nationalism stemming from the Enlightenment. Zionism played a crucial role in the eventual establishment of the State of Israel in 1948 and has had lasting implications for Middle Eastern politics.