AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
4.8 Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:MLA
The period from 1450 to 1750 witnessed profound transformations in the global economy, labor systems, environmental processes, and social structures. The interconnection between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres—made possible by transoceanic voyages—revolutionized trade and reshaped empires, societies, and the environment.
Interconnected Hemispheres: A New Global Network
European maritime exploration, driven by technological advancements and economic ambitions, connected distant parts of the world for the first time in history.
- Navigational Advances: Tools such as the astrolabe, magnetic compass, and improvements in cartography and ship design (like the caravel and lateen sail) enabled safer and more efficient long-distance sea travel.
- Wind and Current Knowledge: Sailors gained a deeper understanding of trade winds and ocean currents, which made transoceanic voyages more predictable and profitable.
These developments ushered in the Columbian Exchange, a global transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
⭐ Demographic Collapse: The spread of smallpox, measles, and malaria devastated Indigenous populations in the Americas, while syphilis spread to Europe, marking one of history’s most significant biological exchanges.
Continuities and Changes in Agriculture and Labor
While agriculture remained the backbone of most economies, the nature of agricultural labor and systems underwent major shifts due to increasing global demand.
Continuities:
- Peasant Agriculture: Continued to dominate in most parts of the world, especially in rural Asia and Europe.
- Serfdom: Persisted in places like Russia, where serfs remained tied to the land and worked under coercive conditions.
Changes:
- Plantation Agriculture: Expanded in the Americas to meet European demand for sugar, tobacco, and cotton. These plantations relied heavily on coerced labor, particularly African enslaved people.
- Cash Crops and Global Trade: Farmers shifted from subsistence farming to cultivating export-oriented cash crops, fueling environmental degradation and labor exploitation.
Impact on Gender, Society, and Environment
Gender Restructuring
The Atlantic slave trade skewed gender ratios in Africa, as more men were captured and sold. This led to:
- Greater responsibilities for African women, who assumed economic and agricultural roles in the absence of men.
Social Stratification
The global economic changes gave rise to new elites and widened social inequality.
| Region | Social Changes |
|---|---|
| Europe | Expansion of the merchant middle class; erosion of feudal nobility’s dominance |
| Americas | Rise of the Casta system based on racial hierarchy |
| Africa | Some African leaders grew wealthy through the slave trade |
| Asia | Social mobility narrowed under Qing & Tokugawa conservatism |
⭐ Casta System: In Spanish America, social class was directly linked to race and place of birth, creating a strict social hierarchy from Peninsulares down to Indigenous and enslaved peoples.
Environmental Consequences
- Deforestation: Driven by plantation expansion and resource extraction (e.g. timber and sugar).
- Soil Depletion: Intensive monoculture led to long-term loss of fertility.
- Water Disruption: Irrigation and damming for cash crops altered river ecosystems and aquatic habitats.
Imperial Expansion and Global Rivalries
Empires sought to control trade routes, extract resources, and expand their influence—leading to both cooperation and conflict.
Mercantilism and Colonial Control
European powers adopted mercantilist policies, believing national power depended on accumulating wealth through trade surpluses and colonial expansion.
| Feature | Mercantilist Practice |
|---|---|
| Colonies | Provided raw materials and exclusive markets for exports |
| Trade Restrictions | Colonies could only trade with their mother country |
| Wealth Measure | Based on holdings of gold and silver |
| Government Role | Heavy regulation and subsidies for strategic industries |
Key Conflicts Between Empires
| Conflict | Participants | Cause | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| French and Indian War | Britain vs. France (and allies) | Dispute over Ohio River Valley | British gained Canada and dominance in North America |
| Seven Years’ War | Global (Britain vs. France) | Global imperial rivalry | British victory in India, Canada, Caribbean |
| Dutch-Portuguese War | Dutch vs. Portugal | Control over Asian and Atlantic trade routes | Dutch took over East Indies; Portugal kept Brazil |
| Anglo-Mughal Wars | British East India Co. vs. Mughals | Commercial footholds in India | Britain established dominance in Bengal by 1757 |
Conclusion: Continuities and Changes from 1450–1750
This era was defined by both transformation and persistence:
- Continuities: Agriculture remained central; social hierarchies persisted (often based on birth and race); empires continued to assert dominance over peripheries.
- Changes: Transoceanic trade networks created the first truly global economy; new labor systems and social structures emerged; environmental impacts became more severe.
The increasing demand for goods, labor, and land—fueled by empire-building and capitalism—would lay the foundation for even greater transformations in the modern period.
Key Terms to Review (39)
Agriculture: Agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. This foundational economic activity has evolved significantly over time, impacting social structures, economies, and technological advancements throughout history.
Anglo-Mughal Wars (1686-1757): The Anglo-Mughal Wars were a series of military conflicts between the British East India Company and the Mughal Empire that occurred from 1686 to 1757. These wars marked the transition of power in India from Mughal dominance to British colonial rule, highlighting the changing dynamics of European imperialism and Indian politics during this period.
Atlantic Slave Trade: The Atlantic Slave Trade was a brutal system of forced labor that involved the transportation of millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. This trade significantly impacted economic structures, social dynamics, and cultural exchanges between continents, shaping the modern world.
Aztec Empire: The Aztec Empire was a powerful Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to the 16th centuries, known for its rich culture, complex social structure, and impressive architectural achievements. It was characterized by a tribute system, a polytheistic religion, and an expansive trade network, playing a crucial role in the development of pre-Columbian America.
Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing different species, ecosystems, and genetic variations within species. During the period from 1450 to 1750, biodiversity played a crucial role in shaping agriculture, trade, and interactions among cultures, particularly as global exploration and the Columbian Exchange facilitated the transfer of plants, animals, and diseases across continents.
Cash Crops: Cash crops are agricultural products grown primarily for sale and profit rather than for personal consumption. These crops have played a crucial role in shaping global trade patterns and economies, influencing social structures and labor systems across continents. Their significance expanded notably during periods of exploration and colonization, as they were often cultivated in colonies to meet the demands of European markets.
Columbian Exchange: The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, cultures, human populations, diseases, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century. This exchange dramatically altered economies, societies, and environments on both sides of the Atlantic, leading to profound changes in global history.
Conflicts between Empires: Conflicts between Empires refer to the military, political, and economic struggles that arose as different empires sought to expand their territories, influence, and resources from 1450 to 1750. These conflicts often resulted in warfare, diplomatic tensions, and shifts in power dynamics, leading to significant changes in both the empires involved and the regions they dominated. Understanding these conflicts helps to reveal patterns of continuity and change during this transformative period in global history.
Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is an agricultural practice that involves alternating the types of crops grown on a particular piece of land over successive seasons. This method helps improve soil fertility, control pests and diseases, and optimize the use of nutrients, leading to more sustainable farming practices. Its significance is particularly noted during periods of early industrialization and transformations in agricultural techniques from 1450 to 1750.
Dutch Colonies: The Dutch Colonies were overseas territories established by the Netherlands from the late 16th century to the 18th century, primarily in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. These colonies played a crucial role in the global trade network, particularly in spices, sugar, and other commodities, influencing economic systems and colonial practices during this transformative period.
Dutch-Portuguese War (1601-1661): The Dutch-Portuguese War was a conflict between the Dutch Republic and the Portuguese Empire, primarily fought over control of trade routes and colonies in Asia and Africa during the early 17th century. This war marked a significant shift in the balance of power in maritime trade, as it facilitated the decline of Portuguese dominance and the rise of Dutch mercantile interests.
Eastern Hemisphere: The Eastern Hemisphere refers to the half of the Earth that lies east of the Prime Meridian and west of the International Date Line. It includes parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. This region plays a significant role in understanding the dynamics of global trade, cultural exchanges, and historical developments, especially during the period of exploration and exchange between continents.
Empires: Empires are extensive groups of states or countries under a single supreme authority, often ruled by an emperor or monarch. During the period from 1450 to 1750, empires played a crucial role in shaping global politics, economy, and culture through exploration, colonization, and trade, significantly impacting the relationships between different regions and peoples.
English Colonies: The English Colonies were territories established by England in the Americas during the 17th and 18th centuries, primarily along the Atlantic coast. These colonies played a crucial role in the expansion of European powers in the New World, with a diverse range of economies, cultures, and political structures that evolved over time, marking significant changes from 1450 to 1750.
Environmental Processes: Environmental processes refer to the natural phenomena and human activities that affect the Earth’s ecosystems, climate, and landscapes. During the period from 1450 to 1750, these processes were shaped by significant changes in agriculture, trade, and colonization, leading to alterations in land use and resource extraction that had lasting impacts on both the environment and human societies.
Florida: Florida is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, known for its significant role during the Age of Exploration and colonization from 1450 to 1750. Its strategic position made it a focal point for European powers, particularly Spain, which established the first permanent European settlement in St. Augustine in 1565. The state's geography, featuring extensive coastlines and fertile land, also contributed to its importance for trade and agriculture during this period.
French Colonies: French Colonies were territories established by France during the age of exploration and colonization, primarily from the 16th to the 18th centuries, where they sought to expand their influence and extract resources. These colonies played a crucial role in the development of a global economy and were characterized by the exploitation of indigenous populations and resources, as well as cultural exchanges between French settlers and local communities.
French and Indian War (1754-1763): The French and Indian War was a conflict between Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763, marking a significant struggle for territorial dominance in the region. This war not only involved the British and French empires but also included various Native American tribes allied with both sides, making it a pivotal event in shaping colonial relations and imperial strategies. The outcomes of this war laid the groundwork for future changes in British colonial policies and tensions leading to the American Revolution.
Gender Structures: Gender structures refer to the social systems and norms that define the roles, responsibilities, and expectations of individuals based on their gender within a society. From 1450 to 1750, these structures significantly influenced societal organization, power dynamics, and economic roles, shaping interactions between genders and affecting various aspects of life such as politics, family, and labor.
Global Trade: Global trade refers to the exchange of goods, services, and capital across international borders, connecting economies and cultures worldwide. It has evolved significantly from early trade routes and practices to a complex system influenced by technological advancements, colonization, and economic policies.
Heavy Plow: The heavy plow is an advanced agricultural tool developed in medieval Europe that allowed for more efficient tilling of heavy, clay-rich soils. This innovation transformed agricultural practices, contributing to increased food production and supporting population growth during a period marked by significant economic and social change.
Inca Empire: The Inca Empire was a powerful pre-Columbian civilization that thrived in the Andean region of South America from the early 15th century until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Known for its advanced agricultural practices, architectural achievements, and sophisticated political system, the Inca Empire played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and historical landscape of the Americas.
Interconnected World: An interconnected world refers to the growing global network of economic, cultural, and political relationships that developed significantly between 1450 and 1750. This era witnessed increased trade, exploration, and the exchange of ideas across continents, leading to profound changes in societies and economies worldwide.
Jamestown, Virginia: Jamestown, Virginia, established in 1607, was the first permanent English settlement in North America. It marked a significant milestone in the age of exploration and colonization, showcasing the challenges and successes of European powers in the New World during this transformative period.
Malaria: Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. This disease played a significant role in shaping global health patterns, particularly during the Columbian Exchange, as it was transferred between continents, impacting populations and economies.
Measles: Measles is a highly contagious viral infection that primarily affects children, characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, and a distinctive rash. The spread of measles had significant implications during the era of exploration and trade, as the disease was one of many pathogens transferred from Europe to the Americas and other regions, leading to devastating impacts on indigenous populations.
Mercantilism: Mercantilism is an economic theory and practice that emerged in Europe during the 16th to 18th centuries, advocating that a nation's strength is directly related to its wealth, particularly in gold and silver. This theory promoted government regulation of the economy to enhance state power and wealth through a favorable balance of trade, where exports exceed imports.
Mexico: Mexico is a country located in North America, known for its rich history and cultural heritage that includes indigenous civilizations and Spanish colonial influence. It has played a pivotal role in the evolution of global trade, politics, and society from the early modern period through significant calls for reform and change into the 20th century.
Middle Class: The middle class refers to a social group that emerged prominently during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by their economic stability and influence, typically positioned between the working class and the upper class. This group played a vital role in shaping societal norms, values, and politics during significant historical transitions.
Portugal: Portugal was a pioneering maritime nation in the 15th and 16th centuries, known for its exploration, trade, and the establishment of an extensive colonial empire. As one of the first European powers to engage in overseas exploration, Portugal played a crucial role in shaping global trade networks and cultural exchanges during the Age of Discovery.
Seven Years' War (1756-1763): The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving major powers of Europe and their colonies. Often considered the first 'world war,' it had significant repercussions on colonial empires, shifting the balance of power and leading to financial strains that affected European politics in the following decades.
Smallpox: Smallpox is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever and a distinctive skin rash that results in pus-filled blisters. The introduction of smallpox to the Americas through European contact had devastating effects on Indigenous populations, significantly altering demographic and social structures. This disease exemplifies the impact of the Columbian Exchange, as well as the continuity and change in disease dynamics from 1450 to 1750.
Social Structures: Social structures refer to the organized patterns of relationships and social arrangements within a society that shape individuals' behaviors, roles, and interactions. These structures include class systems, family systems, and systems of governance, which evolve over time and influence various aspects of life, including economics, politics, and culture.
Spain: Spain was a prominent European nation that emerged as a global power from the late 15th century, particularly following the unification of the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon. It played a pivotal role in establishing maritime empires, colonizing vast territories in the Americas, and significantly influencing global trade, culture, and politics during the early modern period.
Sugar: Sugar is a sweet, soluble carbohydrate that became a highly sought-after commodity from the 15th century onwards, primarily derived from sugarcane and later from sugar beets. Its production and trade significantly influenced global economies, social structures, and agricultural practices during this period, leading to the establishment of plantation systems and driving the transatlantic slave trade.
Syphilis: Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum, characterized by various stages that can lead to severe health complications if left untreated. Its spread during the period from 1450 to 1750 illustrates significant changes in societal health concerns and medical understanding as European exploration and trade increased contact between different populations, leading to the exchange of not only goods but also diseases.
Tobacco: Tobacco is a plant whose leaves are processed to create products like cigars, cigarettes, and chewing tobacco, and it became a major cash crop in the Americas during the early modern period. The rise of tobacco cultivation in the 16th and 17th centuries marked significant economic changes as it became a key commodity for trade, particularly between Europe and the Americas, influencing social structures and agricultural practices.
Western Hemisphere: The Western Hemisphere refers to the half of the Earth that lies west of the Prime Meridian and east of the antimeridian, primarily encompassing North America, South America, and parts of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. This region played a crucial role in global history during the Columbian Exchange, significantly impacting both the Old and New Worlds through cultural, agricultural, and biological exchanges.
Yellow Fever: Yellow fever is a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes, characterized by fever, chills, loss of appetite, and muscle pain, which can progress to severe liver damage and yellowing of the skin. During the period from 1450 to 1750, yellow fever impacted population dynamics and trade patterns, particularly in colonial contexts where European expansion into tropical regions facilitated the spread of the disease.