AP World History: Modern
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🌍ap world history: modern review
4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies: Class and Race from 1450-1750
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:MLA
During the period from 1450 to 1750, global imperial expansion and the intensification of long-distance trade transformed class structures and social hierarchies. Empires accommodated—or suppressed—ethnic and religious diversity, while also forming new elites based on political loyalty, military service, race, and wealth. At the same time, older elites faced challenges from rising central states. Social mobility expanded for some but narrowed for many, especially enslaved peoples and Indigenous communities.
Social Reorganization in the Gunpowder Empires
The Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire maintained a flexible yet hierarchical social structure:
- At the top was the Sultan, who granted favors and land to loyal bureaucrats and military elites.
- Below were ulama (Islamic scholars), military officers, and tax farmers.
- Janissaries, elite soldiers originally recruited through the Devshirme system (Christian boys taken and trained to serve the state), gained influence over time and even challenged the sultan.
Religious minorities, particularly Jews and Christians, were permitted to practice their faith in millet communities, in exchange for paying the Jizya tax. Many Jews expelled from Spain found refuge in the Ottoman Empire, especially in cities like Istanbul and Salonika.
The Mughal Empire
Under rulers like Akbar the Great, the Mughals practiced remarkable religious tolerance. They:
- Ended the jizya tax on non-Muslims
- Promoted interfaith dialogue
- Supported Sikhism, a syncretic faith combining elements of Hinduism and Islam
However, later rulers like Aurangzeb reversed these policies, persecuting non-Muslims and contributing to Hindu resistance movements like the Marathas.
China and the Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was established by the Manchus, an ethnic minority that overthrew the Ming Dynasty. Though the Qing adopted Confucian bureaucracy, they imposed cultural markers like the queue hairstyle to assert dominance.
- Han Chinese faced discrimination, especially if they resisted Qing rule.
- Han men who refused to adopt the queue were often executed.
- Some Han elites allied with the Qing and helped enforce their rule, often by suppressing Han rebellions.
This is a classic case of a minority ruling a majority, similar to the Mughal or Spanish colonial systems.
European Social Orders and Resistance
Class in Europe
Europe was dominated by rigid feudal class hierarchies, although commerce was beginning to challenge them:
| Class | Description |
|---|---|
| Monarchs | Claimed divine right; centralized power |
| Nobles | Owned land; often served in government or military |
| Clergy | Held moral and educational authority |
| Bourgeoisie | Urban merchant class rising in power |
| Peasants & Serfs | Worked land; faced high taxation and limited rights |
France under Louis XIV saw attempts to consolidate royal power. After the Fronde Revolt (1648–1653), Louis restricted noble power, famously declaring, “L’état, c’est moi” (“I am the state”).
Jewish Communities in Europe
The Jewish diaspora continued in this era:
- Expelled from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1497, Jews migrated to the Ottoman Empire, Poland, and the Netherlands.
- Sephardic Jews (from Iberia) and Ashkenazi Jews (from Central and Eastern Europe) experienced varying degrees of tolerance.
While Enlightenment ideals encouraged some tolerance, Antisemitism persisted. In tolerant societies like the Netherlands, Jewish merchants thrived in banking and trade, but were often scapegoated during economic downturns.
Russia: Serfdom and the Boyars
Russian social structure was deeply hierarchical:
- Tsar at the top held absolute power.
- Boyars were the aristocratic class, owning land and commanding serfs.
- Serfs, essentially bound peasants, were tied to landowners and had no freedom of movement or economic rights.
Though serfdom was waning elsewhere in Europe, it became more entrenched in Russia throughout this period.
Colonial Americas: Race-Based Hierarchies
Casta System in Latin America
Spanish and Portuguese colonies organized society by race and ancestry. The casta system was a rigid hierarchy used to maintain colonial control.
| Rank | Group | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Peninsulares | Europeans born in Spain or Portugal |
| 2 | Creoles | Europeans born in the Americas |
| 3 | Mestizos | Mixed Indigenous and European ancestry |
| 4 | Mulattoes | Mixed African and European ancestry |
| 5 | Zambos | Mixed African and Indigenous ancestry |
| 6 | Indigenous Peoples | Native American populations |
| 7 | Enslaved Africans | Forced laborers from Africa |
Colonial officials used the casta system to assign rights and privileges. While mestizos and mulattoes could rise modestly in status, they were barred from political leadership and high religious offices.
North America
In British colonies:
- Social hierarchy was less rigidly codified, but race still determined one’s place.
- African slaves were legally and socially at the bottom.
- Indigenous peoples were displaced and marginalized.
- White indentured servants were considered socially inferior, but could eventually rise in status after completing their service.
Women in Early Modern Societies
Across the globe, women’s roles varied by class, religion, and geography:
- Elite women (like Roxelana in the Ottoman court) could gain influence through court politics or marriage.
- Enslaved and peasant women often bore the brunt of labor exploitation.
- In Indigenous American societies, women often had significant economic and political roles before colonization, many of which were suppressed by European norms.
Religious and Ethnic Suppression vs. Tolerance
States across Afro-Eurasia responded differently to diversity:
| Empire | Policy Toward Minorities |
|---|---|
| Ottoman | Tolerated Jews and Christians under jizya; allowed millet communities |
| Mughal (Akbar) | Promoted religious dialogue and removed jizya |
| Mughal (Aurangzeb) | Re-imposed jizya; persecuted Hindus and Sikhs |
| Qing China | Repressed Han Chinese culture; enforced Manchu customs |
| Tokugawa Japan | Expelled missionaries and suppressed Christianity |
| Spanish America | Imposed Catholicism and suppressed Indigenous religions |
⭐ Key Insight:
While some empires practiced pragmatic pluralism to strengthen state power, others enforced cultural uniformity to consolidate authority—often at the expense of minority groups.
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Key Terms to Review (28)
Akbar the Great: Akbar the Great was the third Mughal emperor who reigned from 1556 to 1605, known for his significant contributions to the expansion and consolidation of the Mughal Empire in India. His rule is characterized by religious tolerance, administrative reforms, and cultural advancements that played a key role in resisting external pressures, promoting social harmony, and establishing a centralized governance system.
Anti-Semitism: Anti-Semitism refers to prejudice, discrimination, or hostility directed against Jews. This term encompasses a wide range of negative attitudes and beliefs about Jewish people, often rooted in stereotypes, conspiracy theories, and historical scapegoating. Throughout history, anti-Semitism has manifested in various forms, leading to social exclusion, violence, and systemic persecution of Jews in different societies.
Ashkenazi Jews: Ashkenazi Jews are a Jewish ethnic group that originated in Central and Eastern Europe, primarily in the regions of Germany and Poland. They developed a distinct culture and religious practices, particularly in the context of Jewish life during the period from 1450 to 1750, marked by both resilience and challenges due to social stratification and discrimination based on class and race.
Boyar Class: The Boyar Class was a noble class in Russia during the medieval period, characterized by land ownership, significant political power, and a strong influence on governance. As the ruling elite, boyars played a crucial role in the development of the Russian state and its interactions with various social classes and ethnic groups, especially during the period of expansion and consolidation of power from 1450 to 1750.
Caste System: The caste system is a hierarchical social stratification found primarily in India, where individuals are born into specific social groups that determine their occupation, social status, and potential for mobility. This system was rigidly defined, creating distinct categories such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, which influenced social dynamics and interactions from 1450 to 1750.
Castas Pyramid: The Castas Pyramid is a social hierarchy established in colonial Latin America that categorized individuals based on their racial ancestry, primarily differentiating between Europeans, Indigenous peoples, and Africans. This system not only defined one's social status and legal rights but also reinforced the racial divisions that characterized colonial society, influencing access to resources, power, and opportunities well into the modern era.
Changing Social Hierarchies: Changing social hierarchies refer to the shifts in the structure and organization of society based on class, race, and social status. During the period from 1450 to 1750, these hierarchies were influenced by various factors such as colonization, economic transformations, and cultural exchanges, leading to significant alterations in the power dynamics between different groups. This era saw the emergence of new social classes, the redefinition of race and ethnicity, and changes in the roles of individuals within society.
Creole Class: The Creole Class refers to the social group in colonial Latin America, consisting of people of European descent born in the Americas. This class emerged in the context of colonial societies, where social hierarchies were largely based on race and origin, leading to significant tensions between the Creoles and peninsulares, who were Spaniards born in Spain.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It sought to challenge established norms and promote ideas such as liberty, equality, and scientific inquiry, influencing revolutions and societal changes worldwide.
Gunpowder Empires: Gunpowder Empires refer to three major Islamic empires— the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughal Empire—that rose to power between the 15th and 18th centuries through the effective use of gunpowder technology in military conquests. These empires expanded significantly due to their superior artillery and military strategies, which allowed them to dominate vast territories and integrate diverse populations.
Han Ethnicity: Han ethnicity refers to the largest ethnic group in China, making up over 90% of the population. This group is characterized by a shared cultural heritage, language (Mandarin), and historical experiences, playing a central role in shaping China's national identity and social structure from 1450-1750.
Jewish Diaspora: The Jewish Diaspora refers to the dispersion of Jewish people beyond their ancestral homeland, particularly after the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. This widespread scattering led to the establishment of Jewish communities across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, significantly influencing cultural interactions, economic networks, and social hierarchies from 1450 to 1750.
Janissaries: Janissaries were an elite military corps within the Ottoman Empire, originally formed from conscripted Christian boys who were converted to Islam and trained to serve the sultan. This unique military system not only provided the empire with a loyal and skilled fighting force but also played a critical role in the political landscape of land-based empires, influencing governance and social structures during the period from 1450 to 1750.
Louis XIV: Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, was the King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715. He is famous for centralizing power in the monarchy and embodying the absolute monarch concept, which had a lasting impact on the governance of land-based empires and social hierarchies in Europe during his reign.
Manchus: The Manchus were a group of northeastern Asian peoples who unified to establish the Qing Dynasty in China during the 17th century. As outsiders, they brought significant cultural and political changes to China, influencing class structures and social hierarchies while also blending with Han Chinese culture.
Mestizos: Mestizos are individuals of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry, who emerged as a distinct social class in the colonial societies of Latin America. This blending of cultures and races was a significant result of European colonization, leading to new social hierarchies and cultural identities that would play a critical role in shaping nationalist movements and class relations in the region.
Merchant Class: The Merchant Class refers to a social and economic group consisting of individuals engaged in trade, commerce, and the exchange of goods. This class emerged prominently in the period from 1450 to 1750, as global trade networks expanded and economic systems evolved, leading to shifts in social hierarchies and relationships between different classes.
Mulattoes: Mulattoes refer to individuals of mixed European and African ancestry, primarily arising from the colonial era in the Americas during the 16th to 18th centuries. This group emerged as a distinct racial category within the broader context of colonial societies, where rigid racial hierarchies were established based on skin color and lineage. The existence of mulattoes illustrates the complex intersections of race, class, and social status during this period.
Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire was a prominent Islamic empire in South Asia that lasted from the early 16th to the late 19th century, known for its cultural achievements and significant territorial expansion. The empire reached its zenith under rulers like Akbar, who is celebrated for his administrative innovations and policies promoting religious tolerance.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Peninsulares: Peninsulares were individuals born in Spain or Portugal who held high social, political, and economic status in the colonies of Latin America during the colonial period. They represented the top tier of the social hierarchy, often controlling the wealth and power of the colonial administration, which created tensions with other social classes, particularly Creoles, leading to revolutionary movements later on.
Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, and was established by the Manchu people after they overthrew the Ming Dynasty. This period is marked by significant territorial expansion, cultural exchanges, and conflicts with Western powers, influencing China's response to modernization and industrialization.
Queue Hairstyle: The Queue Hairstyle was a traditional hairstyle worn by men in China, characterized by a long braid at the back while the front of the head was shaved. This hairstyle became a symbol of loyalty to the Qing Dynasty and played a significant role in class and race dynamics during the period from 1450 to 1750, reflecting power structures and social identities.
Roxelana: Roxelana, also known as Hürrem Sultan, was a significant figure in the Ottoman Empire during the 16th century, recognized for her rise from a captive to the legal wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Her influence marked a shift in gender dynamics within the empire, as she became an active political player, shaping policy and patronizing arts and architecture.
Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution refers to a period from the late 16th century to the 18th century during which significant advancements were made in scientific thought and methodology. This era marked a shift from medieval thinking, which relied heavily on religious doctrine, to empirical observation and experimentation. Key figures such as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton challenged existing beliefs, leading to a transformation in the understanding of the natural world and the development of modern science.
Serfdom: Serfdom was a system of agricultural labor prevalent in medieval and early modern Europe, where serfs were bound to the land they worked on and were under the authority of a landowner. This arrangement linked economic productivity to social hierarchy, as serfs had limited rights and often worked in exchange for protection and a small plot of land for their families.
Sephardic Jews: Sephardic Jews are a Jewish ethnic group originating from the Iberian Peninsula, specifically Spain and Portugal, who were expelled during the Spanish Inquisition in the late 15th century. Their experiences illustrate the complex interplay of class and race, as they navigated social hierarchies and religious discrimination in their new homes across Europe, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire.
Sikhism: Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia, rooted in the teachings of Guru Nanak and nine subsequent Gurus. It emphasizes equality, social justice, and community service, promoting a distinct identity that transcends traditional caste and class divisions.