🇪🇺ap european history review
5.1 Contextualizing 18th-Century States
Verified for the 2025 AP European History exam•Citation:MLA
Context: From Expansion to Crisis
From 1648 to 1815, Europe underwent major transformations that challenged traditional power structures. The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the Thirty Years’ War and ushered in an age of state sovereignty, weakening the Catholic Church’s influence in secular affairs. Over the next century, absolutist monarchies centralized authority, but Enlightenment ideas, economic expansion, and revolutionary movements would ultimately destabilize the old order.
Economic Growth and Global Rivalries
Commercial Expansion and Colonialism
The 18th century saw a sharp increase in trade and colonial competition. European states (especially Britain, France, and the Dutch Republic) expanded overseas empires to access raw materials and markets.
- Global Triangular Trade enriched European economies while intensifying the transatlantic slave trade.
- Colonial profits from sugar, cotton, tobacco, and silver fueled mercantilist rivalries between Britain and France.
- Competition over trade routes and colonies led to major conflicts like the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763).
Technological Innovation and Industrial Foundations
Although full-scale industrialization emerged later, the groundwork was laid during this era:
- The Agricultural Revolution (seed drill, crop rotation) led to population growth and surplus labor.
- The early factory system began forming in textile production.
- Urbanization intensified as peasants migrated to cities for work.
State Power and Political Upheaval
Absolutism and Resistance
Following Westphalia, absolutist rulers like Louis XIV of France consolidated power through centralized bureaucracy, standing armies, and propaganda. But new Enlightenment ideas questioned the divine right of kings and promoted popular sovereignty.
- Britain’s Glorious Revolution (1688) ushered in constitutional monarchy.
- In France, tensions between absolutist monarchy, social inequality, and Enlightenment values sparked the French Revolution (1789–1799).
Constitutionalism and Absolutism rivaled one another with the rise of France and England in the 17th to early 18th Century.
The French Revolution and Napoleon
The French Revolution was a turning point in European history:
- “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity” became rallying cries against monarchy and feudal privilege.
- The revolution escalated into radicalism (Reign of Terror), followed by Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise.
- Napoleon claimed to uphold revolutionary ideals, codifying them in the Napoleonic Code, but governed as an emperor and waged wars across Europe, destabilizing the continent and reshaping national borders.
Cultural Shifts in the Arts: From Order to Emotion
Art movements reflected and influenced Europe’s changing political and social climate.
Renaissance (14th–16th century):
Focused on humanism, balance, proportion, and classical influence. Celebrated individual achievement and secularism.
Mannerism (Late Renaissance):
Reacted to Renaissance ideals with distorted forms, tension, and artificiality, reflecting uncertainty post-Reformation.
Baroque (17th century):
- Used dramatic lighting, grandeur, and religious themes to inspire awe.
- Embraced by absolute monarchs and the Catholic Church for propaganda and piety (Bernini, Caravaggio).
Neoclassicism (Mid-18th century):
- A return to classical simplicity and civic virtue, ==often aligned with Enlightenment ideals.==
- Art was rational, moralistic, and focused on historical or political themes (Jacques-Louis David).
Romanticism (Late 18th–early 19th century):
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Reacted against Enlightenment reason and Neoclassical order.
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Emphasized emotion, nature, imagination, nationalism, and the sublime.
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Romantic art and literature often reflected disillusionment with industrialization and war, celebrating the individual’s inner world and a deep connection to folk traditions and the natural world. Examples of Romantic Themes:
- Wild landscapes representing untamed emotion.
- Heroic individuals rebelling against oppressive forces.
- Emphasis on medieval or exotic settings as a critique of modernity.
Romanticism as a Reaction & the Rise of Nationalism
Romanticism as a Reaction Against the Enlightenment
While the Enlightenment focused on logic, reason, order, and progress, Romanticism emerged as a cultural rebellion against these ideals:
- ==Romantics viewed Enlightenment rationalism as cold, mechanical, and spiritually empty.==
- Where the Enlightenment emphasized universal truths, Romanticism embraced individual experience, emotion, and subjective reality.
- Romantics rejected Enlightenment faith in technological and societal progress, fearing it stripped humanity of its connection to nature, tradition, and spirituality.
⭐ Romantic artists, poets, and thinkers turned to nature, folklore, history, and emotion to find deeper truths than those offered by science and reason. In doing so, they laid the groundwork for cultural nationalism.
The French Revolution and the Birth of Nationalism
The French Revolution was a major catalyst for modern nationalism. Revolutionary ideals like:
- Popular sovereignty
- Equality before the law
- Civic participation
…helped redefine the nation as a community of citizens, not just subjects under a monarch. ==As Napoleon expanded France’s power across Europe, he spread revolutionary principles that inspired both admiration and nationalist resistance.==
Other crises also fueled national identity:
- In Germany, opposition to French domination sparked a cultural nationalism based on shared language, myths, and history.
- In Spain, popular resistance to Napoleon’s forces in the Peninsular War united peasants, clergy, and nobles against a foreign invader.
- In Eastern Europe, diverse ethnic groups began imagining themselves as distinct nations, often tied to Romantic ideals of folk culture and historical legacy.
⭐ By 1815, the Congress of Vienna sought to restore the old order, but the seed of nationalism had already taken root. The coming decades would see increasing demands for national self-determination, especially in multiethnic empires like Austria and the Ottoman Empire.
🎥 Watch: AP Europe - Beginning of the French Revolution
Key Terms to Review (24)
Act of Union: The Act of Union, enacted in 1707, was a legislative agreement that unified the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland into a single sovereign state known as Great Britain. This significant political move aimed to create stability and strengthen the economy, ultimately establishing a centralized parliament in Westminster that would govern the newly formed nation.
Absolutist Monarchs: Absolutist monarchs were rulers who held absolute power over their states, centralizing authority and diminishing the influence of nobility and other governing bodies. They justified their rule through divine right, believing their authority came directly from God, which was a key aspect in the context of 18th-century states and the absolutist approaches to power that characterized this period.
Act of Toleration: The Act of Toleration was a law passed in 1689 in England that granted religious freedom to Protestant dissenters, allowing them to worship freely outside of the Church of England. This act was significant as it marked a shift towards greater religious tolerance and laid the groundwork for modern concepts of religious liberty in the context of evolving 18th-century states.
Bill of Rights: The Bill of Rights refers to the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1791, which guarantee essential rights and freedoms to individuals. This foundational document emerged from the Enlightenment ideals of individual liberty and was influenced by earlier political developments, such as the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, highlighting the struggle against absolute monarchy and the importance of protecting citizens' rights against government overreach.
Commercial Agriculture: Commercial agriculture refers to large-scale farming operations that focus on the production of crops and livestock for sale in the market rather than for personal consumption. This type of agriculture often relies on mechanization, advanced technologies, and a focus on efficiency and profitability, marking a shift in agricultural practices during the 18th century that had significant social and economic implications.
Economic Expansion: Economic expansion refers to the period of growth in an economy, marked by increased production, higher employment rates, and rising consumer spending. This term is crucial for understanding the development of state economies and the emergence of global markets, highlighting how nations sought to enhance their wealth and power through trade, agriculture, and industrialization.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. It fostered ideas that challenged existing norms in politics, science, and society, leading to significant changes in various aspects of life across Europe and beyond.
European Colonialism: European Colonialism refers to the expansion of European powers into other regions, establishing control over foreign lands, resources, and peoples, primarily from the 15th to the 20th century. This phenomenon significantly influenced political, economic, and social structures in both Europe and colonized territories, leading to rivalries among European nations and creating complex global interactions.
Factory System: The Factory System is a method of manufacturing that emerged during the Industrial Revolution, characterized by the centralized production of goods in large establishments where workers operated machines. This system transformed traditional handcraft industries by introducing mechanization, leading to increased productivity and efficiency in the production process.
France: France is a country in Western Europe that has played a pivotal role in European history, culture, and politics from the medieval period through modern times. Its influence can be seen across various aspects, including the Renaissance, the rise of absolutism, revolutionary movements, and the establishment of modern nation-states.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which fundamentally changed the structure of French society and government. It marked the rise of popular sovereignty, the end of absolute monarchy, and the birth of modern democracy, influencing revolutionary movements worldwide.
Glorious Revolution: The Glorious Revolution was a pivotal event in 1688 that led to the overthrow of King James II of England and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne, marking a significant shift towards constitutional monarchy. This peaceful transition of power established parliamentary sovereignty and limited the powers of the monarchy, setting the stage for modern democratic governance in England.
Great Britain: Great Britain is the largest island in the British Isles and includes the countries of England, Scotland, and Wales. It played a pivotal role in European history, influencing political, economic, and social developments from the 18th century through the post-World War II era.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrial growth and technological advancement that began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread to other parts of Europe and North America. This transformative era reshaped economies, societies, and cultures, leading to significant changes in labor, urbanization, and production methods.
Mutiny Act: The Mutiny Act was a British law originally enacted in 1689 to ensure discipline within the armed forces by allowing the government to punish military personnel who disobeyed orders or engaged in mutinous behavior. This act was crucial for maintaining order and control over the military, particularly during times of war, and was connected to broader themes of governance, military authority, and civil rights in the 18th century.
Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and emperor who rose to prominence during the French Revolution, eventually becoming the ruler of much of Europe in the early 19th century. His influence on military strategy, governance, and legal reform significantly shaped modern Europe and its political landscape.
Peace of Westphalia: The Peace of Westphalia refers to a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe, establishing a new political order based on the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference. This agreement marked a turning point in European diplomacy and the concept of nation-states, leading to a more structured international system.
Romanticism: Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a response to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment. It emphasized emotion, individualism, and the glorification of nature, contrasting with the rationalism of preceding eras. This movement influenced various cultural expressions, shaping new ideas about society, art, and politics.
Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution was a period from the late 16th century to the 18th century during which new ideas in science emerged, fundamentally changing the way humanity understood the natural world. This era marked a shift from a reliance on religious explanations and classical authorities to empirical evidence and the scientific method, influencing various fields such as astronomy, physics, biology, and chemistry.
Seven Years’ War: The Seven Years’ War was a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and often considered the first 'world war.' It reshaped colonial empires and set the stage for the rise of British dominance in North America and India, while simultaneously contributing to financial strains on European powers that played a role in the events leading up to significant revolutions, including the French Revolution.
Steam Engine: The steam engine is a machine that converts the heat energy from steam into mechanical work, playing a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution by powering machinery, locomotives, and ships. This innovation drastically changed the landscape of transportation and manufacturing, facilitating economic growth and societal transformation.
Technology and Innovation: Technology and innovation refer to the application of scientific knowledge and engineering skills to develop new tools, machines, and processes that improve efficiency and productivity. In the context of the 18th century, advancements in technology played a crucial role in transforming economies and societies, impacting everything from agriculture to manufacturing and transportation.
Trade and Commerce: Trade and commerce refer to the activities involved in the buying, selling, and exchange of goods and services within and between countries. During the 18th century, these activities played a critical role in shaping the economic landscape of emerging states, influencing their power dynamics and relationships with one another. This period saw significant developments in trade routes, mercantilism, and the rise of global markets, which all had a lasting impact on political and social structures.
William and Mary: William and Mary refers to William III of England and his wife, Mary II, who jointly ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1689 until Mary's death in 1694. Their reign is significant for the establishment of constitutional monarchy in England, highlighting the transition towards parliamentary sovereignty and limiting royal power.