AP European History
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5.3 Britain's Ascendency
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The Glorious Revolution
English Protestants vs. English Catholics
The Glorious Revolution (1688–1689) was a bloodless overthrow of King James II by English Protestants who feared a return to absolutist, Catholic rule. Parliament invited William of Orange, a Protestant and husband to James II’s daughter Mary, to take the throne.
- James II’s attempts to centralize power and promote Catholicism alienated Parliament and the largely Protestant population.
- William landed with an army, gained widespread support, and James fled to France.
- William and Mary were crowned as co-monarchs under new constitutional terms.
The English Bill of Rights (1689)
This foundational document:
- Limited monarchal power and asserted Parliamentary supremacy.
- Guaranteed civil liberties, including freedom of speech, trial by jury, and protection from cruel punishment.
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This marked the permanent establishment of constitutional monarchy in Britain and ensured the king ruled with the consent of the governed.
Trade, Colonialism, and French Rivalry
British Mercantilism and Naval Power
By the early 18th century, Great Britain had become a major commercial empire, fueled by:
- Mercantilist policies that maximized exports and protected trade routes.
- A stronghold over the triangular trade network, moving goods, enslaved people, and raw materials across the Atlantic.
- The British East India Company, dominating Indian trade in spices, tea, and textiles.
- Access to colonial resources from North America and the Caribbean.
Naval dominance allowed Britain to protect shipping lanes, enforce tariffs, and expand colonial holdings. ==This growing wealth gave it the resources to outpace the Dutch and challenge France’s global supremacy.==
The triangular trade brought the British immense wealth in the global trade economy; Image Courtesy of Encyclopedia Britannica
The Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)
The Seven Years’ War was the first true global conflict, fought across:
- Europe
- North America (as the French and Indian War)
- West Africa
- The Caribbean
- India
Root Causes
- Ongoing rivalry between Britain and France for commercial and colonial dominance.
- Disputes over territory in the Ohio River Valley and global trade networks.
- Shifting alliances in Europe—Britain allied with Prussia, while France allied with Austria and Russia.
Why It Matters
- British Victory: The Treaty of Paris (1763) granted Britain control of Canada, significant territory in India, and Florida. France was pushed out of North America and weakened in Asia.
- France’s Financial Collapse: The war left France deep in debt, unable to maintain its colonial empire.
- (eventually led to the French Revolution)
- Britain’s Imperial Expansion: Britain emerged with the largest empire in the world and the strongest navy.
- Shifting Global Power: ==The war ended France’s dominance in favor of a British-led world order.==
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The Seven Years’ War is a turning point in global history. It marked the end of French global supremacy, triggered the American and French Revolutions, and laid the foundation for British imperial dominance in the 19th century.
The South Sea and Mississippi Bubbles
In the early 18th century, both Britain and France experienced financial crises caused by speculative investment bubbles:
The South Sea Bubble (Britain)
- Investors poured money into the South Sea Company, which promised profits from trade in South America.
- When profits failed to materialize, the bubble burst in 1720, bankrupting many.
- ==However, due to Britain’s constitutional system, Parliament stepped in, investigated the fraud, and stabilized the economy.==
The Mississippi Bubble (France)
- In France, the Mississippi Company offered shares backed by Louisiana's supposed riches.
- When the scheme collapsed in 1720, investors panicked, leading to economic devastation.
- Unlike Britain, France’s absolutist monarchy lacked checks and balances, so the government failed to restore confidence in the financial system.
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These parallel crises showed that constitutional Britain could survive economic shocks, while absolutist France grew more unstable, contributing to long-term debt that would fuel the French Revolution.
The American Revolution and Aftermath
Britain’s postwar debts led to new taxes on the American colonies, sparking protest:
- Stamp Act, Tea Act, and others were passed without colonial representation.
- This gave rise to “No taxation without representation”, igniting the American Revolution.
After the Battle of Saratoga, France intervened to support the Americans, hoping to undermine Britain. Though the Americans won their independence, France was left even more financially strained, adding fuel to its own domestic unrest. (French Revolution incoming…)
The Crown of the Empire
Despite the loss of the American colonies, Britain remained the preeminent global superpower:
- Its constitutional monarchy enabled economic and political stability.
- Its naval and commercial dominance expanded across Asia, Africa, and the Pacific.
- It developed strong financial institutions like the Bank of England, enabling long-term investments and war funding.
In contrast, France’s absolute monarchy, crushed by debt and political discontent, staggered toward revolution in 1789.
Conclusion: Britain Ascends
Britain’s rise was driven by:
- A constitutional government that provided stability, flexibility, and rule of law.
- A strong navy and commercial empire, allowing it to outlast rivals.
- Strategic victories in global wars, especially over France.
- An ability to survive economic crises—like the South Sea Bubble—and adapt.
By 1763, Britain had become the dominant economic, naval, and imperial power in Europe, setting the stage for its role as the world’s foremost power during the 19th-century Industrial Revolution and the era of Pax Britannica.
🎥 Watch: AP Europe - 7 Years' War & American Revolution
Key Terms to Review (21)
American Revolution: The American Revolution was a colonial revolt against British rule from 1775 to 1783, leading to the establishment of the United States of America. It was fueled by Enlightenment ideas of liberty and democracy, as well as opposition to British taxation without representation. The revolution not only inspired subsequent revolutionary movements globally but also marked a significant shift in the balance of power between colonial empires and their colonies.
Battle of Saratoga: The Battle of Saratoga, fought in 1777, was a pivotal turning point in the American Revolutionary War, marking the first significant victory for the American forces against the British. This battle not only boosted American morale but also convinced France to formally ally with the colonies, significantly altering the dynamics of the war and impacting Britain's ascendency in the 18th century.
British Colonialism: British Colonialism refers to the period of expansion and dominance of the British Empire from the late 16th century through the early 20th century, characterized by the establishment of colonies and control over vast territories around the world. This era marked significant economic, cultural, and political transformations, shaping global interactions and setting the stage for Britain's ascendency as a world power.
British East India Company: The British East India Company was a powerful trading corporation established in 1600, which played a crucial role in the expansion of British trade and colonial influence in India and beyond. As a key player during the Commercial Revolution, the company helped lay the foundations for global markets and contributed significantly to Britain's ascendancy as a world power, while also fostering intense rivalries with other colonial powers and shaping economic practices during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Commercial Interests: Commercial interests refer to the economic motivations and objectives of businesses and individuals involved in trade, commerce, and industry. These interests often drive decisions related to investments, market expansion, and trade routes, particularly in a globalized economy. During periods of significant economic growth, like Britain's ascendency, these commercial interests shaped policies and practices that facilitated trade and colonial expansion.
Constitutional Monarchy: A constitutional monarchy is a system of government in which a monarch shares power with a constitutionally organized government, often with a parliament that makes laws. This arrangement allows the monarch to have a ceremonial role while political authority is exercised by elected representatives, promoting a balance between tradition and democratic governance.
Earl of Danby: The Earl of Danby was a title held by a prominent British politician, Thomas Osborne, who served as the Lord High Treasurer in the late 17th century. His tenure marked a significant period in British history as he was instrumental in navigating the financial complexities of the kingdom during a time of political instability and conflicts with France.
Earl of Shrewsbury: The Earl of Shrewsbury is a title in the English peerage, historically significant for its role in the political and military affairs of England, particularly during the late 15th and early 16th centuries. The title became prominent during the Wars of the Roses and continued to be influential during the Tudor period, notably through figures like George Talbot, the 4th Earl, who was a key player in the struggles surrounding Mary, Queen of Scots.
English Bill of Rights: The English Bill of Rights, enacted in 1689, was a landmark piece of legislation that outlined the rights and liberties of English citizens while limiting the powers of the monarchy. This document emerged from the conflicts during the English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution, establishing parliamentary sovereignty and fundamental legal principles that influenced the development of constitutional monarchy in Britain.
Flow of Trade and French Rivalry: The Flow of Trade and French Rivalry refers to the economic and competitive dynamics between Britain and France during the 18th century, particularly as it relates to colonial expansion and mercantilist policies. The intense competition for control over global trade routes and resources fueled conflicts, notably the Seven Years' War, which ultimately resulted in Britain's rise as a dominant global power while diminishing French influence.
French and Indian War: The French and Indian War was a conflict between Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763, primarily over territorial disputes and colonial dominance. This war was part of a larger global conflict known as the Seven Years' War and marked a significant turning point in British colonial policy and its relationship with the American colonies, leading to increased tensions that would later contribute to the American Revolution.
Glorious Revolution: The Glorious Revolution was a pivotal event in 1688 that led to the overthrow of King James II of England and the ascension of William III and Mary II to the throne, marking a significant shift towards constitutional monarchy. This peaceful transition of power established parliamentary sovereignty and limited the powers of the monarchy, setting the stage for modern democratic governance in England.
Iroquois: The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, were a confederation of Native American tribes primarily located in the northeastern region of North America. They formed a sophisticated political and social structure, creating a powerful alliance that played a significant role in the dynamics of colonial America and the conflicts between European powers, especially during the period of Britain's Ascendancy.
King James II: King James II was the last Roman Catholic monarch of England, reigning from 1685 until his ousting in the Glorious Revolution of 1688. His reign is characterized by attempts to promote religious tolerance and strengthen royal power, which ultimately led to conflict with Parliament and fears of a return to absolute monarchy. The events surrounding his rule were pivotal in shaping the constitutional monarchy that followed in Britain.
Seven Years' War: The Seven Years' War was a global conflict that lasted from 1756 to 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and often regarded as the first 'world war.' This war significantly reshaped colonial rivalries and geopolitical landscapes, leading to Britain's emergence as a dominant global power, while also highlighting the shifting alliances and balance of power in Europe and beyond.
Stamp Act: The Stamp Act was a law passed by the British Parliament in 1765 that imposed a direct tax on the American colonies, requiring them to use specially stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and other publications. This act was one of the first instances of direct taxation on the colonies, aiming to raise revenue to help pay off debts from the Seven Years' War and maintain British troops in North America.
Sugar Act: The Sugar Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1764, was a revenue-raising act that aimed to tax imported sugar and molasses in the American colonies. This legislation was part of Britain's broader efforts to consolidate control and raise funds following the costly Seven Years' War, highlighting the growing tensions between Britain and its colonies over issues of taxation without representation.
Tea Act: The Tea Act was a law passed by the British Parliament in 1773 that aimed to help the struggling British East India Company by allowing it to sell its surplus tea directly to the American colonies, bypassing colonial merchants. This act not only intended to lower the price of tea for consumers but also reaffirmed Britain's authority to tax the colonies, igniting widespread protests and resistance among colonists who viewed it as another example of taxation without representation.
Treaty of Paris 1763: The Treaty of Paris 1763 was a formal agreement that ended the Seven Years' War (also known as the French and Indian War) between Britain, France, and Spain. This treaty marked a significant turning point in British colonial expansion, as it granted Britain control over Canada and Florida, while effectively diminishing French influence in North America. The outcomes of this treaty laid the groundwork for Britain's ascendency as a global power and set the stage for rising tensions between Britain and its American colonies.
Triangular Trade: Triangular Trade refers to the transatlantic system of trade that operated between Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries. This system involved the exchange of goods, slaves, and raw materials among these regions, establishing a crucial economic link that fueled the growth of European economies and colonies while perpetuating the institution of slavery.
William of Orange: William of Orange, also known as William III of England, was a key figure in the late 17th century who played a significant role in the Glorious Revolution, which resulted in the overthrow of King James II. His ascension to the English throne marked a shift toward constitutional monarchy and set the stage for a new balance of power within Europe, establishing parliamentary sovereignty over royal authority.