Russia

Intro to Russia's Political System

The Russian Federation emerged from the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, embarking on a tumultuous path of political and economic transformation. Following an initial period of democratic opening and economic liberalization under President Boris Yeltsin (1991-1999), Russia has evolved into what political scientists classify as a competitive authoritarian or "managed democracy" system under Vladimir Putin's leadership (2000-2008, 2012-present) and during Dmitry Medvedev's presidency (2008-2012). This hybrid regime maintains democratic formalities including elections and constitutional structures while concentrating power in the executive, limiting genuine political competition, and restricting civil liberties. Russia's vast geography, imperial history, natural resource wealth, and powerful security apparatus all shape its distinctive political system, which balances Soviet legacies with new institutional arrangements designed to maintain stability and elite control.

Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments

Russia as a Competitive Authoritarian Regime

Russia exhibits key characteristics of competitive authoritarianism or "managed democracy":

• Electoral authoritarianism: Regular elections occur but are manipulated to ensure desired outcomes.
• Limited pluralism: Opposition parties exist but face significant barriers to gaining real power.
• Executive dominance: Strong presidential powers overshadow other branches of government.
• Media control: State influence over major media outlets, particularly television, limits independent information.
• Selective repression: The state targets opposition leaders and movements selectively rather than imposing totalitarian control.

According to the curriculum (PAU-1.B.3), Russia can be classified as an illiberal or hybrid democracy where democratic institutions exist but function in ways that limit genuine competition. As noted in DEM-1.C.5, Russia represents a competitive authoritarian regime with contested but unfair elections and minimal civil liberty protections. The political system has become increasingly authoritarian under Putin's leadership, with the state strengthening its control over politics, media, and civil society.

Russia's State Structure

Federal System Russia is formally a federal state (PAU-2.A.1) consisting of 83 federal subjects (republics, oblasts, krais, autonomous okrugs, federal cities), though this federalism operates differently from other federal systems:

• Asymmetric federalism: Different regions have different relationships with the center
• Centralized control: Despite federal structures, power is increasingly concentrated in Moscow
• Presidential representatives: Federal districts overseen by presidential appointees monitor regional governments
• Appointment powers: Until 2012, regional governors were appointed by the president rather than elected

The Russian federal system has undergone significant recentralization under Putin (PAU-2.A.2), reflecting the state's response to separatist movements and perceived governance challenges of the 1990s. While formal federal structures remain, the practical autonomy of regions has diminished significantly.

Sources of Legitimacy in Russia

Russia's regime derives legitimacy from multiple sources (LEG-1.A):

1. Performance legitimacy: Putin's initial popularity stemmed from economic recovery after the 1990s crisis and restoration of order.

2. Nationalism: Appeals to Russian national pride, great power status, and protection of Russian interests abroad.

3. Traditional values: Promotion of conservative social values and Russian Orthodox religious traditions.

4. Constitutional-legal: Formal adherence to constitutional procedures and legal frameworks.

5. Charismatic leadership: Putin's personal popularity and image as a strong leader.

As noted in LEG-1.A.2, Russia's regime relies on dominant party endorsement (United Russia) as a key legitimacy source. The regime has also emphasized the contrast with the chaotic 1990s, positioning the current system as providing stability and predictability that was absent during the initial post-Soviet transition.

Political Stability in Russia

Maintaining stability is a central priority for Russia's leadership, which employs various strategies to prevent challenges to its authority (LEG-1.C):

Internal Challenges and Responses:

• Separatist movements: Following the Chechen Wars, Russia has used both force and co-option to address separatism, particularly in the North Caucasus.
• Opposition movements: The regime has implemented legal restrictions, media control, and selective prosecution to contain political opposition.
• Economic volatility: Dependence on oil and gas exports makes Russia vulnerable to price fluctuations, which the government addresses through reserve funds and import substitution policies.

Stability Maintenance Mechanisms:

• Power vertical: Centralized authority structure ensuring policy implementation throughout the country
• Security apparatus: FSB (Federal Security Service) and other agencies monitor potential threats
• Electoral management: Careful control of electoral processes to ensure predictable outcomes
• Media control: Management of information space, particularly television, to shape public opinion
• Nationalist mobilization: Use of external threats to generate domestic solidarity

As noted in PAU-1.D.1.d, the Russian political elite has backed a strong presidency while creating a managed democracy that favors one party, reflecting a stability-focused approach to governance.

Unit 2: Political Institutions

Executive Leadership in Russia

Russia's executive structure is semi-presidential, combining elements of presidential and parliamentary systems (PAU-3.A.3):

Key Executive Positions:

• President: Directly elected for six-year terms (previously four years, changed by constitutional amendment). The president serves as head of state, commander-in-chief, and sets the direction of domestic and foreign policy.
• Prime Minister: Nominated by the president and confirmed by the State Duma. Serves as head of government, overseeing the cabinet and civil service (PAU-3.C.2.e).
• Cabinet (Council of Ministers): Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister.

Presidential Powers:

• Determines main directions of domestic and foreign policy
• Represents Russia in international relations
• Commands the armed forces
• Appoints key security officials, judges, and prosecutors
• Can issue decrees with the force of law
• Can dissolve the Duma under certain circumstances
• Nominates the prime minister and can dismiss the government

Prime Ministerial Responsibilities:

• Manages implementation of government policy
• Oversees the budget process
• Coordinates ministerial activities
• Manages economic and social policies

Power Dynamics: The 1993 Constitution created a presidency with extensive powers, further strengthened under Putin. The 2020 constitutional amendments reinforced presidential authority while preserving the formal semi-presidential structure. The president dominates the political system, with the prime minister primarily implementing presidential policies rather than exercising independent authority.

Russia's Legislative System

Russia's legislature is structured as a bicameral Federal Assembly (PAU-3.E.1.e):

State Duma (Lower House):

• 450 deputies elected for five-year terms
• Half elected from single-member districts, half through proportional representation with a threshold (currently 5%)
• Primary law-making body that passes federal laws
• Confirms the president's nomination for prime minister
• Can pass a vote of no confidence in the government (though with limited practical effect)

Federation Council (Upper House):

• Two representatives from each federal subject (one from the executive branch, one from the legislative)
• Approves presidential decrees on martial law, emergency situations
• Confirms judicial appointments and presidential use of armed forces abroad
• Reviews bills passed by the Duma

Legislative Process:

• Bills typically originate in the Duma
• After Duma approval, bills go to the Federation Council
• The president can sign or veto legislation
• Presidential vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in both houses

Legislative-Executive Relations: While formally powerful, the legislature's independence is constrained by:

• United Russia's dominance in the Duma
• Presidential control over the legislative agenda
• Limited parliamentary oversight capacity
• Executive control of resources and information

Russia's Judicial System

Russia's judicial system has formal independence but faces significant political influence (PAU-3.G.1.g):

Structure and Functions:

• Constitutional Court: Reviews laws for constitutional compliance, resolves disputes between branches of government
• Supreme Court: Highest court for civil, criminal, administrative and economic cases
• Arbitration Courts: Handle commercial and economic disputes
• General Jurisdiction Courts: District and regional courts handling most criminal and civil cases

Judicial Selection: Judges are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council (PAU-3.G.1.h), creating an appointment process that gives the executive significant influence over the judiciary.

Key Characteristics:

• Constitutional framework: The judiciary has constitutional authority for judicial review, though this power is seldom used to check the executive
• Political influence: High-profile cases involving political opposition or strategic interests often reflect political considerations
• Administrative dependence: Court administration and resources controlled by executive agencies
• Professional judiciary: Career judges rather than political appointees or elected judges
• Inquisitorial system: Judge-led rather than adversarial proceedings

As noted in PAU-3.G.1.g, the Russian government has used the judiciary to target opposition figures, and courts have constitutional but rarely exercised judicial review powers.

Institutional Relationships in Russia

Russia's semi-presidential system creates complex relationships between institutions:

Executive-Legislative Relations:

• President sets policy direction while parliament creates legislative framework
• United Russia's dominance in the Duma facilitates executive control
• Federation Council has limited capacity to check presidential power
• Budget process gives parliament theoretical leverage rarely used in practice

Executive Dominance Mechanisms:

• Presidential decree power
• Control over security apparatus
• Media influence to shape public opinion
• Patronage networks extending through all institutions
• Constitutional provisions favoring executive authority

Institutional Conflicts: During the 1990s, significant conflicts occurred between President Yeltsin and the parliament, culminating in the 1993 constitutional crisis when Yeltsin used military force against the rebellious parliament. Since Putin's ascendance, institutional conflict has been minimized through the dominance of the executive branch and United Russia party.

Unit 3: Political Culture and Participation

Civil Society in Russia

Civil society in Russia operates under significant constraints (IEF-1.A, IEF-1.B):

Historical Development:

• Late Soviet period witnessed emergence of independent associations
• 1990s saw explosive growth of NGOs and civil society organizations
• Since 2000, increasing state regulation and restrictions
• 2012 "Foreign Agent" law marked significant tightening of control over civil society

Types of Organizations:

• State-affiliated organizations: Groups like the Public Chamber and officially approved youth movements
• Service-oriented NGOs: Organizations addressing social needs with limited political engagement
• Professional associations: Business groups, lawyers' associations, etc.
• Human rights organizations: Groups monitoring civil liberties and political rights
• Opposition movements: Political organizations challenging the regime

State-Society Relations:

• State encourages "constructive" civil society focused on service delivery
• Organizations addressing political issues face restrictions, especially if receiving foreign funding
• Legal framework including "foreign agent" and "undesirable organization" laws constrains independent activity
• State creates parallel organizations to compete with independent civil society

Political Culture in Russia

Russia's political culture reflects its historical experience and current socialization processes (IEF-1.C):

Key Elements of Russian Political Culture:

• Statism: Belief in a strong state as necessary for order and development
• Great power identity: Desire for international respect and influence
• Skepticism of Western models: Preference for "sovereign democracy" over imported systems
• Personalized authority: Emphasis on strong leadership rather than impersonal institutions
• Social conservatism: Traditional values regarding family, gender, and national identity

Political Socialization:

• Education system: Increasingly emphasizes patriotic themes and Russian historical achievements
• State media: Television particularly important in shaping political attitudes
• Orthodox Church: Growing influence on values education and public discourse
• Military service: Conscription system serves as socialization mechanism
• Family transmission: Soviet and post-Soviet experiences shape intergenerational attitudes

Political Values Shift: The post-Soviet period has seen a shift from initial enthusiasm for Western-style democracy and markets toward more nationalist, statist, and culturally conservative values, particularly following the economic crises and perceived humiliations of the 1990s.

Political Participation in Russia

Political participation in Russia takes various forms within authoritarian constraints (DEM-1.A):

Formal Participation Channels:

• Voting: Regular elections with typically high reported turnout, though quality of electoral competition is limited
• Party membership: United Russia and system-approved opposition parties provide participation channels
• Public consultations: Formal mechanisms for citizen input on policies, though often perfunctory
• Public Chamber: Consultative body of civil society representatives

Informal Participation:

• Protests: Periodic demonstrations around specific issues, though increasingly restricted
• Social media activism: Digital platforms provide space for political expression despite censorship
• Consumer action: Boycotts and consumer choices sometimes express political preferences
• Local initiatives: Community-level activism addressing specific local concerns

State Management of Participation: As noted in DEM-1.A.4, Russia encourages certain forms of participation (particularly voting) to enhance legitimacy, while carefully controlling its boundaries. The state creates "managed" participation opportunities that provide input without threatening regime stability, while restricting autonomous political mobilization.

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties in Russia

The protection of civil rights and liberties in Russia has declined over time (DEM-1.C):

Constitutional Protections: The 1993 Constitution guarantees extensive rights and freedoms, including:

• Freedom of speech and press
• Freedom of assembly and association
• Freedom of religion
• Due process protections
• Privacy rights

Implementation Reality:

• Media restrictions: State control of television and increasing internet censorship
• Assembly limitations: Tight regulations on protests and demonstrations
• NGO constraints: "Foreign agent" law and other restrictions on civil society
• Selective prosecution: Legal system used against opposition figures
• Digital surveillance: Expanded monitoring of online communications

As noted in DEM-1.C.3.c, Russia has nationalized broadcast media and rigidly controls opposition news sources. The gap between formal rights and actual implementation has widened, with the state prioritizing stability and control over individual liberties.

Unit 4: Party and Electoral Systems and Citizen Organizations

Russia's Party System

Russia has evolved toward a dominant-party system (PAU-4.A, PAU-4.B):

United Russia:

• Established in 2001 as a "party of power" supporting President Putin
• Holds constitutional majority in the State Duma
• Combines ideological flexibility with support for the regime
• Serves as a vehicle for elite coordination and career advancement
• Draws support from state employees, business leaders dependent on government, and conservative voters

System Opposition Parties:

• Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF): Draws on Soviet nostalgia and left-nationalist positions
• Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR): Despite its name, a nationalist party led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky until his death
• A Just Russia: Center-left party created as a loyal alternative to the Communists
• These parties criticize specific policies but rarely challenge the fundamental system

Non-System Opposition:

• Liberal, democratic parties face major barriers to registration and electoral participation
• Opposition leaders often face legal obstacles to candidacy
• Limited access to media and resources

Party System Development: As noted in PAU-4.A.3, Russia has ensured one-party dominance through increasingly restrictive registration requirements, allowing only registered parties to run candidates, selectively disqualifying opposition through the courts, limiting opposition media access, and raising electoral thresholds.

Electoral System in Russia

Russia's electoral system has evolved to favor stability and regime control (DEM-2.A, DEM-2.B):

Presidential Elections:

• Direct popular election for a six-year term (extended from four years in 2008)
• Two-round system: if no candidate receives a majority in the first round, a runoff is held
• Candidates must gather signatures to qualify, with political parties facing different requirements
• Incumbent presidents permitted to run for two consecutive terms (constitutional amendment in 2020 "reset" Putin's term count)

Duma Elections:

• Mixed electoral system: 225 deputies from party lists by proportional representation, 225 from single-member districts (SMD)
• 5% threshold for proportional representation seats
• SMD elections use first-past-the-post rules
• System changed from fully proportional back to mixed in 2016

Electoral Administration:

• Central Election Commission oversees the electoral process
• Regional and local election commissions manage implementation
• International and domestic observation, though with increasing restrictions
• Electronic voting introduced in some regions

Electoral Challenges:

• Administrative resources favor regime-supported candidates
• Media access disproportionately benefits United Russia
• Opposition candidates face barriers to registration
• Electoral fraud allegations, particularly ballot stuffing and forced voting

Interest Groups and Citizen Organizations in Russia

Russia's interest group landscape reflects the state's dominant position (IEF-2.A, IEF-2.B):

Business Interests:

• Large corporations, particularly in natural resources, maintain close ties to the state
• Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs represents big business
• Small and medium business associations have limited influence
• Individual oligarchs exercise influence through personal connections rather than formal associations

Professional Organizations:

• Professional associations exist for various occupations but typically avoid political confrontation
• Academic institutions maintain close relationships with the state
• Media organizations operate under significant state influence

Labor Organizations:

• Federation of Independent Trade Unions of Russia is the largest labor organization
• Independent unions face significant obstacles
• Labor mobilization generally limited to local economic issues

Social Movements: As noted in IEF-2.A.3.e, Russia has seen protests against legislation affecting same-sex couples. Other significant movements have included anti-corruption protests led by Alexei Navalny and demonstrations against pension reform, though the state has responded with increasing restrictions on protest activity.

Unit 5: Political and Economic Changes and Development

Economic Liberalization in Russia

Russia's economic development represents a complex case of market transition and state reassertion (IEF-3.D, IEF-3.E):

Post-Soviet Transition:

• "Shock therapy" in the early 1990s: rapid privatization, price liberalization, and trade opening
• Economic collapse and hyperinflation during transition
• Controversial loans-for-shares privatization creating oligarch class
• 1998 financial crisis and ruble collapse

Putin-Era Economic Policies:

• Initial market-oriented reforms (tax reform, budget discipline)
• Gradual reassertion of state control over strategic sectors
• As noted in IEF-3.B.1.d, Putin re-nationalized oil and gas industries and limited foreign investment
• Creation of state corporations in key industries
• Macroeconomic stability prioritized through reserve funds

Economic Structure Today:

• Natural resource dependence, particularly oil and gas
• State companies dominate strategic sectors
• Small and medium private enterprises face regulatory burdens
• Sanctions since 2014 have increased economic isolation
• Import substitution policies to reduce dependence on Western goods

Globalization's Impact on Russia

Russia's relationship with globalization is complex, combining integration and resistance (IEF-3.A, IEF-3.C):

Economic Integration:

• WTO membership achieved in 2012 after lengthy negotiations
• Foreign investment welcomed in non-strategic sectors
• Integration into global energy markets as a major exporter
• Participation in international financial systems
• Eurasian Economic Union created as regional integration project

Political Resistance:

• "Sovereign democracy" concept emphasizes Russia's distinct development path
• Suspicion of Western-led global institutions and norms
• Information sovereignty policies including internet restrictions
• Counter-sanctions and import substitution in response to Western sanctions
• Promotion of multipolar world order challenging Western dominance

Cultural Dimensions:

• Selective cultural openness combined with "traditional values" emphasis
• Russian Orthodox Church promoted as cultural alternative to Western liberalism
• Youth exposed to global culture while educated in patriotic values
• Media portrayal of West as decadent and hostile to Russian interests

Demographic Changes in Russia

Russia faces significant demographic challenges with political implications (LEG-4.A):

Key Demographic Trends:

• Population decline since Soviet collapse, partially reversed in recent years
• Low fertility rates (though increased from post-Soviet nadir)
• High male mortality, particularly from alcohol-related causes
• Aging population creating pension system pressures
• Migration from former Soviet republics partially offsetting natural population decline

Regional Patterns:

• Rural depopulation, particularly in European Russia
• Concentration in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and regional centers
• Ethnic Russian population declining faster than minority populations
• Demographic strength in Muslim-majority regions of North Caucasus

Policy Responses:

• Pronatalist policies including "maternal capital" payments for second and subsequent children
• Pension reform raising retirement age (sparking significant protests)
• Managed migration policies favoring Russian-speaking immigrants
• Health campaigns addressing alcohol abuse and smoking
• Programs to develop the Russian Far East, including homestead land grants

Natural Resources and Development in Russia

Russia exemplifies the "resource curse" affecting oil and gas-dependent economies (LEG-5.A):

Resource Wealth:

• World's largest natural gas reserves and among the top oil producers
• Significant coal, metals, timber, and other natural resources
• Energy exports account for approximately 60% of export earnings and 30% of GDP

Resource Curse Effects (LEG-5.A.2):

• Economic vulnerability: Budget heavily dependent on energy prices, creating boom-bust cycles
• Dutch disease: Strong currency during energy booms harms manufacturing competitiveness
• Corruption: Resource wealth creates opportunities for rent-seeking behavior
• Institutional weakness: Resource abundance reduces incentives for developing effective institutions
• Political effects: Resource wealth enables the state to maintain patronage networks and avoid reforms

Resource Management:

• State control: As noted in LEG-5.A.3.c, centralized control under Putin has concentrated natural resource wealth
• Stabilization funds: National Welfare Fund accumulates excess oil and gas revenues
• Tax regime: Extraction taxes and export duties capture resource rents for the state
• State champions: Gazprom, Rosneft, and other state companies dominate the energy sector
• Energy diplomacy: Natural resources used as geopolitical tools, particularly in relations with former Soviet and European states

Conclusion: Russia in Comparative Perspective

Russia represents a distinctive case in comparative politics, combining:

• A hybrid regime maintaining democratic forms while limiting substantive competition
• A resource-dependent economy with significant state involvement
• A federal structure with centralized control
• A society negotiating between Soviet legacies, traditional values, and global influences

The "managed democracy" model challenges Western assumptions about the inevitable connection between market economies and political liberalization, demonstrating how competitive authoritarian regimes can use democratic forms to legitimize non-democratic governance. Russia's combination of electoral manipulation, media control, selective repression, and nationalist mobilization has proven effective at maintaining regime stability, though at the cost of political pluralism and civil liberties.

Understanding Russia's political system is essential not only for the AP Comparative Government exam but also for comprehending one of the most significant challenges to liberal democratic models in the contemporary world. Russia's influence extends beyond its borders, as its governance model has inspired similar approaches in other post-Soviet states and beyond.