Mexico

Intro to Mexico's Political System

Mexico offers a compelling case study of democratization, representing a transition from one-party dominance to multiparty competition in a presidential federal system. The United Mexican States (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) emerged from the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) with a strong revolutionary ideology incorporated into its 1917 Constitution. For most of the 20th century, Mexico was dominated by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which maintained hegemonic control through a combination of corporatism, patronage, electoral manipulation, and revolutionary legitimacy. Beginning in the 1980s and culminating in the opposition National Action Party's (PAN) presidential victory in 2000, Mexico underwent a democratic transition, establishing competitive elections and strengthening institutions. Today, Mexico functions as a democratic federal republic, though still addressing challenges of corruption, organized crime, and uneven development. This transformation makes Mexico particularly valuable for understanding how authoritarian systems can evolve toward democracy through gradual institutional change.

Unit 1: Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments

Mexico as a Democratic Regime

Mexico's contemporary political system demonstrates key democratic characteristics, though with ongoing challenges:

• Competitive elections: Regular elections with genuine competition between multiple parties, alternation in power, and independent electoral administration.
• Democratic institutions: Separation of powers, checks and balances, and constitutional protections for rights.
• Media pluralism: Multiple media outlets with varying political perspectives, though journalists face threats from organized crime.
• Civil society: Active civil society organizations operating with relative freedom.
• Civilian control: The military operates under civilian leadership, unlike earlier periods in Latin American history.

According to the curriculum (PAU-1.B), Mexico is classified as a democratic regime, having transitioned from the authoritarian single-party dominance of the PRI era. This democratization process (PAU-1.C) involved creating more competitive, fair, and transparent elections; increasing citizen participation; expanding suffrage; providing greater governmental transparency; and establishing rule of law—though these improvements remain incomplete in practice.

Mexico's State Structure

Federal System Mexico operates as a federal republic (PAU-2.A.1) comprising 31 states and Mexico City (formerly the Federal District), which received state-like status in 2016. This federal structure divides power between the national government and states, with key features including:

• Three-tier government: Federal, state, and municipal levels
• Distribution of powers: Constitution defines federal and state competencies
• State autonomy: States have their own constitutions, elected governors, and legislatures
• Revenue sharing: System for distributing tax revenues between levels of government

The federal system serves multiple purposes (PAU-2.A.2):

• Preventing excessive centralization of power
• Accommodating regional diversity
• Providing governance adapted to local needs
• Allowing policy experimentation at state level

Despite constitutional federalism, Mexico has historically been more centralized in practice than federal systems like the United States, though decentralization has increased since the 1990s.

Sources of Legitimacy in Mexico

Mexico's democratic regime derives legitimacy from multiple sources (LEG-1.A):

1. Constitutional foundation: The 1917 Constitution, born from revolution, provides historical and legal legitimacy.

2. Electoral democracy: Competitive elections and peaceful power transfers since 2000 have strengthened procedural legitimacy.

3. Revolutionary heritage: While less prominent than during PRI dominance, revolutionary symbolism and values remain important.

4. Economic performance: Governance effectiveness and material improvements contribute to performance legitimacy.

5. International recognition: Mexico's standing as a democratic nation enhances external legitimacy.

During the PRI era, Mexico's regime relied heavily on revolutionary legitimacy combined with corporatist inclusion and economic development. The democratic transition has shifted legitimacy sources toward electoral procedures and institutional performance, though the revolutionary tradition remains symbolically important.

Political Stability in Mexico

Maintaining stability presents significant challenges in contemporary Mexico (LEG-1.C):

Internal Challenges and Responses:

• Organized crime: Drug cartels and criminal organizations pose serious security threats in many regions, challenging state authority.
• Corruption: Systemic corruption undermines institutional effectiveness and public trust.
• Social inequality: Deep economic disparities and poverty create social tensions.
• Indigenous movements: Groups seeking autonomy and rights recognition, including the Zapatista uprising in Chiapas (1994).

Stability Maintenance Mechanisms:

• Democratic institutions: Competitive elections provide peaceful means to transfer power and address grievances.
• Federalism: Devolution of authority to states helps manage regional differences.
• Economic reforms: Modernization efforts aim to address poverty and inequality.
• Security strategies: Various approaches to organized crime, including military deployment in affected regions.
• International cooperation: Collaboration with the United States and other nations on security and development.

As noted in PAU-1.D.1.e, Mexico's transition from a military-dominated government to a multiparty republic exemplifies how regime change can occur through elections and institutional reforms rather than violent overthrow.

Unit 2: Political Institutions

Executive Leadership in Mexico

Mexico's executive structure follows a presidential system model (PAU-3.A.2, PAU-3.C):

Key Executive Position:

• President: Directly elected for a six-year term (sexenio) with no possibility of reelection. The president serves as both head of state and head of government, functions as commander-in-chief, leads the federal bureaucracy, and represents Mexico internationally (PAU-3.C.2.c).

Presidential Powers:

• Initiating legislation (legislative initiative)
• Implementing and enforcing laws
• Directing foreign policy
• Leading the armed forces
• Appointing cabinet members and other officials
• Preparing and implementing the federal budget
• Exercising limited emergency powers

Important Constraints:

• Single six-year term limit (no reelection)
• Legislative oversight
• Supreme Court judicial review
• Federal structure limiting central authority
• Independent electoral institutions

Historical Context: Mexican presidentialism was extraordinarily powerful during the PRI era (1929-2000), when the president controlled the dominant party and effectively appointed his successor through designation (el dedazo). Since democratization, presidential power has been more constrained by genuine separation of powers, opposition control of the legislature, and stronger independent institutions.

Mexico's Legislative System

Mexico's legislature is structured as a bicameral Congress of the Union (PAU-3.E.1.c):

Chamber of Deputies (Lower House):

• 500 members serving three-year terms
• Mixed electoral system: 300 elected from single-member districts by plurality, 200 through proportional representation
• Primary responsibility for budget approval
• Constitutional ability to impeach public officials
• 3-year terms with the possibility of consecutive reelection (maximum 12 years)

Senate (Upper House):

• 128 members serving six-year terms
• Electoral system: 96 from three-seat constituencies (32 states × 3), 32 by proportional representation
• Special role in foreign policy, including treaty approval
• Confirmation of certain presidential appointments
• 6-year terms with the possibility of consecutive reelection (maximum 12 years)

Legislative Functions:

• Passing federal legislation
• Budget approval (initiated in Chamber of Deputies)
• Constitutional amendments (requiring two-thirds approval and ratification by a majority of state legislatures)
• Oversight of executive actions
• Confirmation of appointments (Senate)
• Representation of states and citizens

Legislative Independence: The Mexican legislature has gained significant independence since democratization. During the PRI era, Congress functioned primarily as a rubber stamp for presidential initiatives. Today, with multiparty representation and no automatic majority, Congress has become a more active policymaking body with genuine oversight capabilities.

Mexico's Judicial System

Mexico's judicial system has undergone significant reforms aimed at strengthening independence and effectiveness (PAU-3.G):

Structure and Functions:

• Supreme Court of Justice: Highest court with 11 ministers, deciding constitutional cases and resolving conflicts between branches of government
• Electoral Tribunal: Specialized court for electoral disputes
• Federal Judicial Council: Administrative body overseeing the federal judiciary
• Circuit and District Courts: Federal courts handling constitutional and federal law
• State Court Systems: Each state has its own judicial hierarchy

Judicial Selection: Supreme Court ministers are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate (PAU-3.G.1.d). They serve 15-year terms with staggered appointments to ensure independence.

Recent Reforms:

• 1994 reforms strengthened Supreme Court independence and introduced judicial review
• Criminal procedure reforms transitioning from an inquisitorial to an adversarial system
• Creation of specialized constitutional courts and procedures
• Efforts to address corruption and improve professionalism

As noted in PAU-3.G.1.c, Mexico's judiciary is in transition, with the Supreme Court having gained power of judicial review but the overall system still developing capacity and independence.

Institutional Relationships in Mexico

Mexico's presidential system creates a formal separation of powers:

Executive-Legislative Relations:

• Clear separation with independent selection of president and Congress
• No cabinet responsibility to legislature (unlike parliamentary systems)
• President can initiate legislation but cannot dissolve Congress
• Congress can override presidential vetoes with two-thirds majority
• Budget authority divided between presidential proposal and congressional approval

Executive-Judicial Relations:

• Judiciary formally independent, though historical executive influence
• President nominates Supreme Court ministers with Senate approval
• Supreme Court can invalidate executive actions through judicial review
• Growing judicial assertiveness in constitutional interpretation

Federal-State Relations:

• Constitution defines federal and state competencies
• States have significant formal autonomy but practical dependency on federal funds
• Governors serve as powerful actors with considerable local authority
• Uneven implementation of federalism across policy areas

Civil-Military Relations: Unlike some Latin American countries, Mexico has maintained civilian control of the military, though the armed forces have taken on expanded roles in combating organized crime.

Unit 3: Political Culture and Participation

Civil Society in Mexico

Civil society in Mexico has expanded significantly during and after democratization (IEF-1.A, IEF-1.B):

Historical Development:

• Limited autonomous civil society during PRI hegemony
• Growth of independent organizations in 1980s and 1990s
• Post-electoral protests of 1988 mobilized civil society
• Pivotal role in democratic transition process
• Expansion and diversification since 2000

Types of Organizations:

• Social movements: Indigenous rights, environmental, women's organizations
• NGOs: Human rights, transparency, development groups
• Business associations: Independent business councils and chambers
• Labor organizations: Both official unions and independent labor movements
• Religious organizations: Catholic Church and growing Protestant communities
• Community associations: Local development and self-help groups

Roles and Impact: As outlined in IEF-1.B.2, Mexican civil society organizations monitor government, advocate for policy change, represent member interests, and provide organizational experience for democratic participation. They have been particularly important in electoral observation, human rights monitoring, and transparency initiatives.

Political Culture in Mexico

Mexico's political culture reflects its complex historical experience (IEF-1.C):

Key Elements of Mexican Political Culture:

• Revolutionary heritage: Values of social justice, nationalism, and anti-imperialism
• Democratic aspirations: Growing support for democratic norms and procedures
• Personalism: Tendency to focus on individual leaders rather than institutions
• Distrust of authority: Skepticism toward government based on historical experiences
• Regional variations: Significant differences between urban/rural and north/south political attitudes

Political Socialization:

• Educational system emphasizes national history and revolutionary values
• Family remains a powerful transmitter of political attitudes
• Media plays increasing role in shaping political perceptions
• Religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church, influence moral dimensions of politics
• Regional environments create distinctive political subcultures

Changing Attitudes: Mexico's political culture has evolved significantly since democratization, with increasing expectations for government accountability, lower tolerance for corruption, and greater belief in the efficacy of voting. However, high crime rates and persistent corruption have also contributed to democratic disillusionment among some citizens.

Political Participation in Mexico

Political participation in Mexico takes various forms (DEM-1.A):

Formal Participation Channels:

• Voting: Universal adult suffrage with relatively high turnout in presidential elections
• Party membership: Parties provide primary channel for political mobilization
• Candidates for office: Increasing opportunities with strengthened independent candidacies
• Consultation mechanisms: Formal processes for citizen input on policies

Informal Participation:

• Social movements: Mobilizations around specific issues (education, land rights, etc.)
• Protests: Public demonstrations as a traditional form of political expression
• Community action: Local problem-solving outside formal political channels
• Civil society advocacy: NGO campaigns on human rights, environment, transparency

Participation Challenges:

• Political clientelism and vote-buying persist in some regions
• Security concerns limit participation in areas affected by organized crime
• Socioeconomic inequalities create disparities in effective participation
• Disillusionment with political system affects engagement

Civil Rights and Civil Liberties in Mexico

The protection of civil rights in Mexico shows a significant gap between constitutional guarantees and practical implementation (DEM-1.C):

Constitutional Protections: The Mexican Constitution guarantees extensive rights, including:

• Freedom of expression, press, and assembly
• Religious freedom
• Right to education and healthcare
• Indigenous rights
• Labor rights
• Comprehensive anti-discrimination provisions

Implementation Challenges:

• Security forces: Human rights abuses by police and military
• Justice system: Weaknesses in due process and access to justice
• Journalists: Mexico remains one of the most dangerous countries for reporters
• Vulnerable groups: Indigenous peoples, migrants, and LGBTQ+ individuals face discrimination
• Economic barriers: Poverty limits effective exercise of rights

Regional Variations: As noted in LEG-2.B.5.b, Mexico has experienced movements demanding autonomy rather than independence. Civil liberties protection varies significantly across states, with southern states generally facing greater challenges in rights implementation than northern states.

Unit 4: Party and Electoral Systems and Citizen Organizations

Mexico's Party System

Mexico has transformed from a hegemonic party system to a competitive multiparty democracy (PAU-4.A, PAU-4.B):

Major Parties:

• National Action Party (PAN): Center-right party emphasizing free markets, traditional values, and anti-corruption.
• Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI): Centrist former dominant party known for pragmatism and strong organization.
• Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD): Center-left party formed by PRI dissidents and leftist groups.
• National Regeneration Movement (MORENA): Left-wing party founded by Andrés Manuel López Obrador, currently in power.

Party System Development: As noted in PAU-4.A.4, Mexico's transition from one-party dominance was facilitated by eliminating the dedazo (presidential designation of successor), privatizing state corporations to decrease patronage, decentralizing power, and establishing the National Electoral Institute. PAU-4.B.1.c further notes that Mexico's multiparty system has been dominated by PAN, PRD, and PRI, with parties forming coalitions.

Electoral Realignment: The 2018 election represented a significant realignment, with MORENA emerging as the dominant party under López Obrador's leadership, while traditional parties (particularly PRI and PRD) experienced dramatic losses.

Party Organization:

• National, state, and local structures
• Internal democratic procedures varying by party
• Coalition-building as a key strategy
• Gender parity requirements in candidacies

Electoral System in Mexico

Mexico's electoral system combines different methods for different offices (DEM-2.A, DEM-2.B):

Presidential Elections:

• Direct popular election for a six-year term
• Single-round plurality system (candidate with most votes wins)
• No reelection permitted
• Concurrent with legislative elections

As noted in DEM-2.B.3.a, Mexico's president is elected by plurality of the national popular vote.

Legislative Elections:

• Chamber of Deputies: Mixed-member system with 300 seats elected from single-member districts by plurality and 200 by proportional representation
• Senate: 128 members, with 96 from three-seat constituencies and 32 by proportional representation
• Term limits with the possibility of consecutive reelection up to 12 years
• Gender quotas increasing female representation (DEM-2.A.1.c)

Electoral Administration: The National Electoral Institute (INE, formerly IFE) manages federal elections. As noted in DEM-2.B.4.b, Mexico created this independent election commission to reduce fraud and manipulation, playing a crucial role in democratization.

Electoral Reforms: Mexico's democratic transition has been marked by a series of electoral reforms:

• 1990: Creation of IFE (later INE)
• 1996: Full independence of electoral authorities
• 2007: Regulation of campaign finance and media access
• 2014: Creation of INE with authority over local as well as federal elections

Interest Groups and Citizen Organizations in Mexico

Mexico has moved from a corporatist toward a more pluralist interest group system (IEF-2.A, IEF-2.B):

Corporatist Legacy: During the PRI era, Mexico exemplified corporatism, with state-sanctioned organizations representing various sectors:

• Labor sector: Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM)
• Peasant sector: National Peasant Confederation (CNC)
• Popular sector: National Confederation of Popular Organizations (CNOP)
• These organizations were formally incorporated into the PRI structure

Pluralist Transition: As noted in IEF-2.B.4, Mexico has moved from a corporatist toward a pluralist system with multiple competing interest groups. Today's landscape includes:

• Business associations: Business Coordinating Council, chambers of commerce, industry chambers
• Labor organizations: Both traditional corporatist unions and independent labor movements
• Professional associations: Groups representing lawyers, doctors, engineers, etc.
• Social movements: Indigenous rights, environmental, women's rights, and other advocacy movements

Social Movements: As noted in IEF-2.A.3.b, Mexico experienced the Zapatista/Chiapas uprising in response to inequality and NAFTA's impact. The Zapatista movement (EZLN) emerged in 1994 to demand indigenous rights and autonomy, highlighting the marginalization of indigenous communities in southern Mexico. Other significant movements have addressed issues like education reform, victims' rights, and environmental protection.

Unit 5: Political and Economic Changes and Development

Economic Liberalization in Mexico

Mexico has undergone profound economic transformation from state-led development to market orientation (IEF-3.D, IEF-3.E):

Historical Evolution:

• Import Substitution Industrialization (1940s-1970s): Protected domestic industry, state-owned enterprises, high tariffs
• Debt crisis and initial reforms (1982-1988): Structural adjustment following financial crisis
• Accelerated liberalization (1988-2000): Privatization, deregulation, NAFTA implementation
• Continued market orientation with social emphasis (2000-present): Maintaining openness while attempting to address social impacts

Key Liberalization Policies:

• Privatization of state-owned enterprises (with some exceptions like oil)
• Trade liberalization culminating in NAFTA (1994) and its successor USMCA (2020)
• Deregulation of various economic sectors
• Opening to foreign investment
• Banking sector reforms
• Fiscal discipline policies

Economic Development Outcomes:

• Expansion of export-oriented manufacturing, particularly in northern states
• Integration into North American production chains
• Growth of middle class, especially in urban areas (IEF-3.A.2.b)
• Persistent regional disparities between north and south
• Continuing challenges of inequality and informality

Globalization's Impact on Mexico

Globalization has profoundly shaped Mexico's development (IEF-3.A, IEF-3.C):

Economic Integration:

• Deep integration with the U.S. economy through NAFTA/USMCA
• Export-oriented manufacturing, particularly maquiladoras along the U.S. border
• Significant foreign direct investment in manufacturing and services
• Remittances from migrants working abroad (primarily U.S.)
• Tourism as major source of foreign exchange

Political Dimensions:

• External pressure for democratization during transition period
• International monitoring of elections and human rights
• Transnational cooperation on security issues, particularly drug trafficking
• Diplomatic engagement with multiple regions beyond North America

Social and Cultural Impacts:

• Migration networks connecting Mexican communities to the U.S.
• Cultural exchanges and influences
• Growing middle class with global consumption patterns
• Digital connectivity expanding access to global information
• Environmental challenges from industrialization and resource exploitation

Demographic Changes in Mexico

Mexico has experienced significant demographic transition with political implications (LEG-4.A):

Key Demographic Trends:

• Slowing population growth: Fertility rates declined from 6.8 children per woman in 1970 to about 2.1 today
• Urbanization: Over 80% of population now lives in urban areas
• Regional redistribution: Population shifting from south to north and from rural to urban areas
• Aging population: Median age rising, creating changing demands on social services
• Migration patterns: Historically high emigration to U.S., though recent years have seen net zero or negative migration

Migration Dynamics: As noted in LEG-4.A.2.c, NAFTA and economic liberalization policies, including the removal of agricultural subsidies, coupled with maquiladora zones and investment patterns, prompted rural-urban and south-north Mexican migration. These patterns contributed to northern development and regional disparities.

Political Implications:

• Changing electoral geography as population shifts
• Youth bulge creates political demands for education and employment
• Urban voters typically more open to political competition than rural areas
• Migration creates transnational political constituencies
• Aging population will eventually create pension and healthcare challenges

Natural Resources and Development in Mexico

Mexico has significant natural resources with important implications for development (LEG-5.A):

Resource Wealth:

• Major oil and natural gas reserves, primarily in the Gulf of Mexico
• Significant mineral resources including silver, gold, copper, and zinc
• Agricultural resources including fertile land in central and southern regions
• Tourism resources including beaches, archaeological sites, and cultural attractions

Resource Management:

• Oil sector: Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex) has historically monopolized the petroleum industry, though reforms in 2013 opened the sector to private investment (IEF-3.B.1.b)
• Mining: Primarily private sector development under concessions
• Water resources: Increasingly stressed, particularly in northern regions
• Land tenure: Mix of private, communal (ejido), and public ownership

Resource Challenges:

• Declining oil production from mature fields
• Environmental degradation from resource extraction
• Regional disparities in resource access and benefits
• Water scarcity, particularly in northern agricultural and industrial areas
• Balancing development with conservation priorities

Conclusion: Mexico in Comparative Perspective

Mexico represents a compelling case in comparative politics, combining:

• A presidential federal system based on the U.S. model but with distinctive features
• A recent transition from single-party dominance to multiparty democracy
• Deep integration with the global economy, particularly North America
• Persistent challenges of inequality, violence, and institutional capacity
• Regional diversity creating varied political and economic conditions

Mexico's democratization illustrates how authoritarian systems can evolve toward democracy through gradual institutional changes and electoral competition rather than revolutionary breaks. The transition from the PRI's hegemonic party system to competitive multiparty politics demonstrates the importance of electoral institutions, civil society pressure, and international factors in democratic development.

Understanding Mexico's political system is essential not only for the AP Comparative Government exam but also for comprehending broader issues of democratic transition, economic development, and North American integration. As one of the world's largest economies and a major regional power, Mexico's political evolution has significance far beyond its borders.