7.2 Secondary succession
8 min read•august 21, 2024
is a crucial ecological process in World Biogeography. It occurs when ecosystems recover from disturbances, whether natural or human-induced, reshaping landscapes and over time.
This process involves distinct stages, from to climax communities. Factors like climate, soil, and intensity influence succession, creating unique patterns across different ecosystems and timescales.
Definition of secondary succession
- Ecological process of community development in areas previously disturbed but not destroyed
- Occurs in environments with existing soil and seed banks, distinguishing it from
- Plays crucial role in and biodiversity maintenance in World Biogeography
Natural disturbances
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- Wildfires alter forest composition, initiating regrowth of fire-adapted species
- Hurricanes and storms create canopy gaps, promoting understory plant growth
- Landslides expose new surfaces for by pioneer species
- Volcanic eruptions deposit ash, enriching soil for rapid plant recolonization
Human-induced disturbances
- Logging activities open forest canopies, triggering understory growth
- Agricultural land abandonment leads to old-field succession
- Mining operations create disturbed landscapes for plant recolonization
- Urbanization and subsequent abandonment of built areas allows for urban succession
Stages of secondary succession
- Progression of ecological communities from simple to complex structures
- Involves changes in species composition, diversity, and ecosystem functions
- Reflects adaptation of species to changing environmental conditions over time
Pioneer species
- First organisms to colonize disturbed areas
- Typically fast-growing, short-lived plants with high reproductive rates
- Include lichens, mosses, and annual herbs (dandelions, fireweed)
- Modify environment by stabilizing soil and increasing organic matter
Early successional species
- Follow pioneer species in colonization sequence
- Consist of perennial herbs, grasses, and small shrubs
- Characterized by rapid growth and high light requirements
- Examples include goldenrod, asters, and blackberry bushes
Mid-successional species
- Establish as early successional species decline
- Comprise larger shrubs and fast-growing tree species
- Tolerate partial shade and compete for resources more effectively
- Include species like birch, aspen, and pine trees in forest ecosystems
Late successional species
- Dominant in mature ecosystems, representing
- Slow-growing, long-lived species with high shade tolerance
- Examples include oak, maple, and beech trees in temperate forests
- Contribute to ecosystem stability and complex food webs
Ecological processes in secondary succession
- Involve interactions between biotic and abiotic factors
- Shape community structure and ecosystem functions over time
- Influence species diversity, biomass accumulation, and nutrient cycling
Colonization and establishment
- Dispersal of seeds or spores to disturbed areas via wind, water, or animals
- Germination and growth of new individuals in available niches
- Influenced by seed bank composition and proximity to undisturbed areas
- Affected by environmental conditions (soil moisture, temperature, light)
Competition and facilitation
- Interspecific competition for resources (light, water, nutrients) among plants
- Intraspecific competition within same species populations
- Facilitation occurs when presence of one species benefits another
- Examples include nitrogen-fixing plants improving soil for other species
Species turnover
- Gradual replacement of early successional species by later ones
- Driven by changes in environmental conditions and competitive interactions
- Results in shifts in community composition and structure over time
- Influenced by life history traits and adaptations of different species
Ecosystem development
- Increase in biomass, organic matter, and nutrient cycling rates
- Development of soil structure and microbial communities
- Establishment of more complex food webs and trophic interactions
- Enhancement of ecosystem services (carbon sequestration, water regulation)
Factors influencing secondary succession
- Determine rate and direction of succession in disturbed ecosystems
- Interact to create unique successional pathways in different environments
- Crucial for understanding and predicting ecosystem recovery processes
Climate and microclimate
- Regional climate affects overall species composition and succession rate
- Temperature and precipitation patterns influence plant growth and survival
- Microclimate variations (aspect, slope, elevation) create diverse niches
- Climate change alters successional trajectories and species distributions
Soil characteristics
- Soil type, texture, and depth influence water retention and nutrient availability
- pH levels affect nutrient uptake and species composition
- Organic matter content impacts soil fertility and microbial activity
- Soil seed bank composition influences initial colonization patterns
Seed bank and dispersal
- Presence of viable seeds in soil determines initial vegetation recovery
- Seed longevity and dormancy affect timing of species emergence
- Dispersal mechanisms (wind, animals, water) influence colonization rates
- Proximity to undisturbed areas affects seed input and succession speed
Disturbance intensity and frequency
- Severity of disturbance impacts remaining vegetation and soil conditions
- Frequency of disturbances affects ecosystem resilience and recovery time
- Intermediate disturbance levels often promote highest species diversity
- Chronic disturbances can lead to alternative stable states or arrested succession
Secondary succession in different ecosystems
- Varies across biomes due to unique environmental conditions and species pools
- Reflects adaptations of regional flora to local disturbance regimes
- Influences global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem functions
Forest ecosystems
- Canopy gap dynamics drive succession in mature forests
- Post-fire succession often involves fire-adapted species (serotinous cones)
- Temperate forests show distinct stages from herbs to pioneer trees to climax species
- Tropical forests exhibit rapid regrowth but may take centuries to reach old-growth state
Grassland ecosystems
- Succession often driven by fire and grazing disturbances
- Rapid recovery of grasses and forbs following disturbance
- Woody encroachment may occur in absence of regular disturbances
- Soil characteristics strongly influence grassland succession patterns
Aquatic ecosystems
- Succession in lakes involves changes in nutrient levels and organic matter
- Coastal wetlands undergo succession influenced by sea-level changes and sedimentation
- Stream ecosystems show succession following floods or channel alterations
- Coral reef recovery after disturbance involves succession of algae and coral species
Timescales of secondary succession
- Vary widely depending on ecosystem type and disturbance severity
- Important for understanding ecosystem resilience and recovery potential
- Relevant for planning ecological restoration and conservation strategies
Short-term changes
- Rapid colonization by pioneer species within weeks to months
- Initial increases in species richness and ground cover
- Establishment of early successional plant communities within 1-5 years
- Development of basic soil structure and nutrient cycling processes
Long-term trajectories
- Development of forest structure takes decades to centuries
- Soil organic matter accumulation continues over centuries
- Species composition may fluctuate for long periods before stabilizing
- Some ecosystems may never reach pre-disturbance state due to changed conditions
Importance of secondary succession
- Crucial process for maintaining ecosystem health and biodiversity
- Provides insights into ecosystem resilience and adaptation mechanisms
- Informs conservation strategies and ecological restoration practices
Ecosystem recovery
- Restores ecosystem functions and services after disturbances
- Rebuilds complex food webs and trophic interactions
- Enhances soil stability and prevents erosion in disturbed areas
- Reestablishes hydrological cycles and improves water quality
Biodiversity restoration
- Increases species richness and diversity over time
- Creates habitats for various plant and animal species
- Promotes genetic diversity within recovering populations
- Supports conservation of rare and endangered species
Carbon sequestration
- Accumulates biomass and increases carbon storage in vegetation
- Enhances soil organic carbon through litter decomposition and root growth
- Contributes to climate change mitigation by removing atmospheric CO2
- Rate of carbon sequestration varies with successional stage and ecosystem type
Secondary succession vs primary succession
- Secondary succession occurs on previously vegetated sites with existing soil
- Primary succession starts on bare substrate (newly formed volcanic islands)
- Secondary succession generally proceeds faster due to presence of soil and seed bank
- Primary succession involves soil formation processes absent in secondary succession
- Both processes lead to increasing ecosystem complexity and biodiversity over time
Human impacts on secondary succession
- Anthropogenic activities significantly alter natural successional processes
- Understanding these impacts crucial for effective ecosystem management
- Influences global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Land management practices
- Controlled burning alters fire regimes and successional pathways
- Grazing management affects grassland succession and woody encroachment
- Reforestation and afforestation initiatives accelerate forest succession
- Agricultural practices (crop rotation, fallow periods) influence old-field succession
Invasive species introduction
- Non-native species can outcompete native plants, altering successional trajectories
- Invasives may change soil properties, affecting subsequent plant communities
- Some invasives create novel ecosystems resistant to native species reestablishment
- Management of invasive species crucial for maintaining natural succession processes
Climate change effects
- Altered temperature and precipitation patterns affect species distributions
- Extreme weather events (droughts, storms) increase disturbance frequency
- Changes in phenology affect species interactions and successional dynamics
- Climate-induced shifts in disturbance regimes (fire frequency) modify succession patterns
Case studies of secondary succession
- Provide empirical evidence for successional theories and models
- Offer insights into ecosystem recovery processes in different contexts
- Inform management strategies for disturbed ecosystems worldwide
Post-fire regeneration
- Yellowstone National Park (USA) shows rapid recovery after 1988 wildfires
- Mediterranean ecosystems exhibit adaptations to frequent fire disturbances
- Australian eucalyptus forests demonstrate fire-dependent succession patterns
- Boreal forest fire succession involves changes in species composition and structure
Abandoned agricultural land
- Old-field succession in Eastern North America shows transitions from herbs to forests
- European abandoned farmlands exhibit varied successional pathways based on land use history
- Tropical forest regeneration on former agricultural lands in Central and South America
- Succession on abandoned rice paddies in Southeast Asia involves hydrophytic plant communities
Deforested areas
- Amazon rainforest regrowth following slash-and-burn agriculture
- Secondary forest development in previously logged areas of Southeast Asia
- Reforestation of cleared areas in temperate regions (Eastern United States, Europe)
- Mangrove forest recovery after clear-cutting in tropical coastal regions
Monitoring and studying secondary succession
- Essential for understanding long-term ecosystem dynamics and recovery processes
- Provides data for developing and testing ecological theories and models
- Informs management decisions and policy-making in conservation and restoration
Field methods
- Permanent plot sampling to track changes in vegetation composition over time
- Chronosequence studies comparing sites at different successional stages
- Dendrochronology to reconstruct forest stand history and disturbance events
- Soil sampling and analysis to monitor changes in soil properties during succession
Remote sensing techniques
- Satellite imagery analysis to detect large-scale vegetation changes over time
- LiDAR technology for measuring forest structure and biomass accumulation
- Hyperspectral imaging to assess plant species composition and health
- Drone-based surveys for high-resolution mapping of successional patterns
Long-term ecological research
- Establishment of long-term study sites to monitor succession over decades
- Integration of multiple data sources (field surveys, remote sensing, historical records)
- Collaboration between researchers, land managers, and local communities
- Development of databases and models to predict future successional trajectories
Applications of secondary succession knowledge
- Crucial for addressing global environmental challenges and sustainable development
- Informs policy-making and management strategies in various sectors
- Contributes to improving ecosystem resilience and human well-being
Ecological restoration
- Design of restoration projects based on understanding of successional processes
- Selection of appropriate species for different stages of ecosystem recovery
- Implementation of assisted natural regeneration techniques
- Monitoring and adaptive management of restored ecosystems over time
Conservation planning
- Identification of priority areas for protection based on successional status
- Development of management strategies for disturbance-dependent species
- Integration of successional dynamics into protected area design and connectivity
- Prediction of future habitat availability under climate change scenarios
Sustainable land management
- Implementation of agroforestry systems based on successional principles
- Design of sustainable forestry practices that mimic natural disturbance regimes
- Development of land-use policies that consider long-term ecosystem dynamics
- Integration of green infrastructure in urban planning to promote urban biodiversity
Key Terms to Review (18)
Biodiversity: Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth, encompassing the different species, genetic variations, and ecosystems. It plays a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance, supporting ecosystem services, and enhancing resilience to environmental changes. Understanding biodiversity helps us appreciate how species and ecosystems interact and adapt to their surroundings, which is vital for conservation efforts and addressing the impacts of human activities.
Climax Community: A climax community is a stable and mature ecological community that has reached a steady state through the process of ecological succession. It represents the final stage in the succession process, where species composition remains relatively unchanged unless disturbed by external forces. The dynamics within a climax community are characterized by a balance of interactions among various species and their environment, often resulting in high biodiversity and resilience.
Colonization: Colonization is the process by which a species spreads into new areas, establishing populations in previously unoccupied or under-occupied habitats. This phenomenon plays a crucial role in shaping biodiversity, influencing ecological dynamics, and contributing to evolutionary processes such as adaptive radiation, where species diversify to fill various niches. It is also significant in understanding how species interact with habitat islands, respond to secondary succession, and follow community assembly rules that dictate how species coexist and thrive in new environments.
Disturbance: Disturbance refers to any event that disrupts the structure or function of an ecosystem, resulting in changes to community composition and ecosystem dynamics. These events can be natural, like wildfires or floods, or human-induced, such as deforestation or pollution. Disturbances play a crucial role in shaping ecological processes, influencing patterns of succession and community assembly.
Ecosystem recovery: Ecosystem recovery refers to the process by which an ecosystem returns to a state of balance and functionality after experiencing a disturbance or disruption. This can involve the reestablishment of species populations, restoration of ecological processes, and recovery of habitat structures, all of which are influenced by the severity and type of disturbance experienced. Understanding this concept is crucial for recognizing how ecosystems adapt to changes over time and the role that both natural events and human activities play in shaping these processes.
Facilitation Theory: Facilitation theory is a concept in ecology that suggests that the presence of certain species can enhance the establishment and growth of other species in a community, particularly during the process of ecological succession. This theory emphasizes the role of early colonizers in modifying the environment, making it more suitable for subsequent species to thrive. By improving soil quality, providing shelter, or altering light conditions, these pioneer species pave the way for a more diverse ecosystem to develop over time.
Habitat fragmentation: Habitat fragmentation refers to the process in which larger habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches, often due to human activities like urban development, agriculture, and infrastructure projects. This division can significantly affect biodiversity, species interactions, and ecosystem functions, as it alters the landscape and limits the movement of organisms between habitat patches.
Hurricane: A hurricane is a powerful tropical storm system characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and low atmospheric pressure, typically forming over warm ocean waters. These storms can cause significant ecological and structural damage, impacting ecosystems and human settlements alike. The effects of hurricanes can lead to secondary succession in affected areas as nature begins to recover and restore its balance after such disturbances.
Keystone Species: A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem relative to its abundance. These species play crucial roles in maintaining the structure, diversity, and functioning of the ecological community, influencing the populations of other species and the overall health of the environment.
Pioneer species: Pioneer species are the first organisms to colonize previously disrupted or damaged ecosystems, playing a crucial role in the process of ecological succession. They help create conditions suitable for other species to thrive, often by altering the environment through processes like soil formation and nutrient cycling. Their presence marks the beginning of a new ecological community following disturbances such as fires, floods, or human activities.
Pioneer Stage: The pioneer stage refers to the initial phase of ecological succession, where the first organisms, known as pioneer species, colonize a previously barren or disturbed area. This stage is crucial for setting the groundwork for future ecological development by altering the environment and making it more suitable for other species to thrive.
Primary Succession: Primary succession is the process of ecological change that occurs in an environment that is devoid of life, such as after a volcanic eruption or glacial retreat. This process begins with the colonization of bare rock or barren land by pioneer species, which are capable of surviving in harsh conditions and ultimately lead to the establishment of a stable ecosystem. The duration of primary succession can vary greatly, making it important for understanding temporal scales in biogeography, particularly how ecosystems evolve over time. Additionally, this concept can be related to specific regions, like the Nearctic realm, where primary succession might occur after disturbances such as forest fires or land clearing.
Secondary succession: Secondary succession is the process by which ecosystems recover and rebuild after a disturbance, such as fire, flood, or human activity, that leaves the soil intact. Unlike primary succession, which starts from bare rock or uninhabited areas, secondary succession begins in areas where a biological community has previously existed but has been disturbed. This recovery can occur over shorter time scales due to existing soil and seed banks, making it a key concept in understanding how ecosystems respond to change over time.
Soil development: Soil development is the process by which soil forms and evolves over time, influenced by factors such as climate, parent material, topography, organisms, and time. This dynamic process leads to the layering of soils, each with distinct physical and chemical properties that support various types of ecosystems. As soil develops, it plays a critical role in nutrient cycling, water retention, and supporting plant life, all of which are crucial during ecological changes such as secondary succession.
Species turnover: Species turnover refers to the change in species composition in a given area over time, often influenced by factors like immigration, extinction, and environmental changes. This process highlights the dynamic nature of ecosystems, as some species may disappear while others establish themselves, leading to variations in biodiversity across different habitats. Understanding species turnover helps illustrate how ecosystems respond to disturbances, habitat fragmentation, and changing environmental conditions.
Successional pathway: A successional pathway is the sequence of stages that an ecological community goes through during ecological succession, representing the changes in species composition and ecosystem structure over time. These pathways illustrate how different species colonize, establish, and eventually dominate an area after a disturbance or the creation of new habitats, leading to a more mature ecosystem.
Tolerance Theory: Tolerance theory is a concept in ecology that explains how different species are able to coexist in the same environment by utilizing various resources or occupying different niches. It suggests that species have varying degrees of tolerance to environmental conditions, which influences their distribution and abundance within ecosystems, especially during processes like secondary succession.
Wildfire: A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire that spreads rapidly through vegetation, often fueled by dry conditions, high winds, and abundant plant material. These fires can occur in forests, grasslands, and other ecosystems, significantly impacting the environment and biodiversity. Wildfires can be natural or human-induced and play a crucial role in shaping landscapes and ecosystems through processes like secondary succession.