1.4 Roman Numeral Analysis
3 min read•august 6, 2024
Roman numeral analysis is a crucial tool for understanding chord progressions in tonal music. It assigns numbers to chords based on their root note's scale degree, helping musicians identify harmonic patterns across different keys.
This system goes beyond simple labeling. It reveals the functional relationships between chords, showing how they create tension and resolution. Understanding these relationships is key to grasping the underlying structure of tonal music.
Diatonic Chords and Functions
Diatonic Chords
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- Diatonic chords are chords built on the degrees of a diatonic scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B in C major)
- Consist of triads, which are three-note chords built by stacking thirds (root, third, fifth)
- Can be major, minor, or diminished depending on the quality of the thirds
- In major keys, the diatonic triads are I, ii, iii, IV, V, vi, vii° (major, minor, minor, major, major, minor, diminished)
- In minor keys, the diatonic triads are i, ii°, III, iv, v, VI, VII (minor, diminished, major, minor, minor, major, major)
Harmonic Functions
- function provides a sense of stability and resolution, often built on scale degree 1 (I chord in major, i in minor)
- function provides a sense of departure or movement away from the tonic, often built on scale degree 4 (IV chord in major, iv in minor)
- function creates tension and a strong pull back to the tonic, often built on scale degree 5 (V chord in major or minor)
- Chords with the same function can often substitute for each other (vi can replace I, ii can replace IV)
Roman Numeral Analysis
Roman Numerals
- Roman numerals indicate the scale degree of a chord's root note (I for tonic, V for dominant, etc.)
- Upper-case numerals (I, IV, V) represent major triads while lower-case numerals (ii, vi) represent minor triads
- Diminished triads use lower-case numerals with a degree symbol (vii°)
- Augmented triads use upper-case numerals with a plus sign (III+)
- Provide a way to analyze chord progressions independent of key (I-IV-V-I works in any major key)
Chord Inversions and Figured Bass
- Chord inversion refers to the lowest note of a chord, which may be the root, third, or fifth
- has the root as the lowest note and is left unmarked (I)
- has the third as the lowest note and is marked with a superscript 6 (I6)
- has the fifth as the lowest note and is marked with a superscript 6/4 (I64)
- Figured bass is a shorthand way to notate inversions using Arabic numerals (I becomes 5/3, I6 becomes 6/3, I64 becomes 6/4)
Cadences
Cadence Types
- A cadence is a harmonic formula that creates a sense of resolution or closure at a phrase ending
- Authentic cadences move from V to I (or V7 to I) and provide the strongest sense of resolution
- Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC) ends with V-I, both chords in root position, and melody ends on scale degree 1
- Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC) ends with V-I but one chord may be inverted or the melody ends on scale degree 3 or 5
- Plagal cadence moves from IV to I and provides a more gentle sense of resolution (common in church hymns)
- moves from V to vi (or IV6) and provides a sudden change in direction, "deceptively" avoiding the expected resolution to I
- Half cadence ends a phrase on V, sounding incomplete and implying continuation in the next phrase
Cadential Chord Functions
- Tonic (I) provides the ultimate point of resolution and stability in a cadence
- Subdominant (IV) often precedes the dominant in authentic and half cadences, strengthening the pull toward the dominant
- Dominant (V) creates the tension that drives to the tonic resolution in authentic and deceptive cadences
Key Terms to Review (20)
Binary Form: Binary form is a musical structure that consists of two contrasting sections, typically labeled A and B. This form is commonly used in various types of compositions, allowing for thematic development and contrast, which enhances the overall listening experience. It serves as a foundational framework for understanding more complex forms in music, such as sonata form and theme variations.
Chromatic harmony: Chromatic harmony refers to the use of notes and chords that are outside the traditional diatonic scale, incorporating chromatic notes to create tension, color, and emotional depth within a piece. This technique broadens harmonic possibilities, allowing composers to explore richer and more complex relationships between chords, often leading to enhanced expressiveness in music.
Circle of Fifths: The circle of fifths is a visual representation of the relationships among the twelve tones of the chromatic scale, their corresponding key signatures, and the associated major and minor scales. This concept helps to understand how keys are related, as each key is a fifth apart from its neighbors, making it essential for recognizing patterns in chord progressions, modulation, and tonal relationships.
Deceptive Cadence: A deceptive cadence is a musical progression that creates an expectation of resolution but instead leads to an unexpected chord, typically moving from the dominant chord (V) to the submediant chord (vi). This type of cadence generates surprise and adds emotional depth to the music by defying the listener's expectations for a strong resolution. Deceptive cadences are integral in shaping harmonic progressions and play a critical role in the overall narrative structure of a piece.
Dominant: The dominant is the fifth scale degree of a diatonic scale and plays a crucial role in establishing harmonic relationships within tonal music. It typically creates tension that seeks resolution to the tonic, making it a key player in establishing tonality and progression, especially when paired with triads and seventh chords.
First Inversion: First inversion refers to a chord configuration where the root note is moved up an octave, placing the third of the chord as the lowest note. This inversion changes the way chords are voiced and can create smoother transitions between chords, enhancing the harmonic flow. First inversion is essential for understanding various concepts, including how chords function in harmonic progressions and how they can be represented in figured bass notation.
Functional Harmony: Functional harmony refers to the way chords are organized and used to create a sense of movement and resolution within a piece of music. This concept is rooted in the roles that different chords play in establishing a tonal center, guiding listeners through harmonic progressions, and shaping the overall structure of a composition.
Harmonic Progression: Harmonic progression refers to a sequence of chords that move from one to another in a way that creates a sense of movement and direction in music. It is foundational for establishing tonal centers, conveying emotions, and supporting melodies, making it essential in understanding various musical structures.
J.S. Bach: Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period, renowned for his intricate musical structures and mastery of counterpoint. His works are foundational in Western classical music and exhibit remarkable techniques that can be analyzed through various musical concepts, showcasing his innovative use of harmony, rhythm, and form.
Ludwig van Beethoven: Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist, widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the history of Western classical music. His work bridged the Classical and Romantic eras, showcasing innovations in form, harmony, and expression that shaped the future of music.
Major Third: A major third is an interval in music that spans four half steps, or semitones, and is characterized by its bright and cheerful sound. This interval is fundamental in constructing major chords and forms the basis of many harmonic structures in Western music. Understanding the major third is essential for analyzing chord progressions and establishing tonal relationships within a piece.
Modulation: Modulation is the process of changing from one key to another within a piece of music, which helps create contrast and maintain listener interest. This shift in tonality can occur through various methods and is essential for developing themes, enhancing harmonic progression, and establishing formal structures.
Perfect Fifth: A perfect fifth is an interval between two notes that spans seven half steps, representing a harmonious and stable sound in music. It is one of the most fundamental intervals and serves as a building block for scales, chords, and harmonization. Recognized for its consonant quality, the perfect fifth plays a vital role in establishing the tonal center of a piece, connecting it to concepts such as key signatures, Roman numeral analysis, and triadic harmony.
Pivot chord: A pivot chord is a chord that is common to two different keys and serves as a bridge during modulation, facilitating the transition from one key to another. It allows composers to create smooth modulations by providing a point of tonal stability, which can help maintain coherence in the music while changing keys. Understanding pivot chords enhances the ability to analyze harmonic progressions and enriches the overall expressive quality of tonal music.
Root Position: Root position refers to the arrangement of a chord where the root note is the lowest note in the harmony. This positioning establishes a strong tonal foundation and is fundamental in constructing primary and secondary triads, as well as understanding voice leading and inversions in composition.
Second Inversion: Second inversion refers to a specific arrangement of a triad in which the fifth of the chord is the lowest note, placing the root and third an octave higher. This inversion can create distinct harmonic textures and is particularly useful for voice leading and establishing smooth transitions between chords. Understanding second inversion is essential for analyzing chord progressions, especially in contexts like Roman numeral analysis and figured bass.
Sequence: In music, a sequence is a repetition of a musical motif or phrase at different pitch levels, creating a pattern of ascending or descending intervals. This technique enhances thematic development and can be applied in various harmonic contexts, often reinforcing structure and coherence in composition.
Sonata Form: Sonata form is a musical structure commonly used in the first movement of sonatas, symphonies, and chamber works, characterized by three main sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation. This form allows composers to explore themes and develop musical ideas in a cohesive way, often leading to dramatic contrasts and resolutions.
Subdominant: The subdominant is the fourth scale degree of a diatonic scale and serves as a key harmonic function that creates tension and prepares the resolution to the dominant. It plays a crucial role in various musical contexts, connecting the tonic to the dominant and influencing chord progressions.
Tonic: The tonic is the first note of a scale and serves as the home base or focal point of a musical key. It provides stability and resolution, making it essential in establishing a sense of tonality, harmonic function, and progression within music.