7.6 Funerary reliefs
8 min read•august 21, 2024
Funerary reliefs in Augustan Rome were more than just memorials. They served as powerful statements of social status, family legacy, and personal achievement. These intricate carvings on stone markers, altars, and sarcophagi blended art with commemoration.
The reliefs evolved from realistic Republican styles to idealized Augustan classicism. They featured portraits, mythological scenes, and everyday life depictions, all rich with symbolism. This art form reflected changing beliefs about death and immortality in Roman society.
Types of funerary reliefs
- Funerary reliefs played a crucial role in Roman commemorative practices during the Augustan period
- These sculptural works served as lasting memorials to the deceased and reflected societal values
- Augustan Rome saw a flourishing of funerary art forms, each with distinct characteristics and purposes
Stelae vs cippi
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- Stelae consist of upright stone slabs with inscriptions and relief carvings
- Cippi are cylindrical or rectangular stone markers often used for boundary demarcation
- Stelae typically feature more elaborate relief work compared to the simpler cippi
- Both forms commonly displayed portraits of the deceased and dedicatory inscriptions
- Stelae gained popularity during the Augustan period for their ability to showcase intricate narrative scenes
Altar tombs
- Altar tombs resemble sacrificial altars in shape and decoration
- Feature relief carvings on all four sides, often depicting mythological scenes or family histories
- Commonly topped with pulvini (scroll-like decorations) reminiscent of temple architecture
- Served dual purposes as both commemorative monuments and sites for funerary rituals
- Altar tombs became increasingly elaborate during the Augustan era, reflecting the period's artistic prosperity
Sarcophagi
- Large stone coffins designed to hold the body of the deceased
- Emerged as a popular form of funerary art in the late 1st century CE
- Decorated with relief carvings on the front and sometimes all four sides
- Themes often included mythological narratives, biographical scenes, or allegorical representations
- Sarcophagi production flourished in the post-Augustan period, influenced by earlier relief traditions
Iconography and symbolism
Mythological scenes
- Depictions of Greek and Roman myths served as allegories for human experiences
- Common themes included heroic deeds, divine interventions, and afterlife journeys
- Myth of Orpheus and Eurydice frequently used to symbolize love transcending death
- Scenes from the Trojan War represented virtues like courage and loyalty
- Dionysiac imagery symbolized rebirth and the cyclical nature of life and death
Portraits of deceased
- Realistic portraiture was a hallmark of Roman funerary art
- Depicted the deceased in idealized forms, often younger than at time of death
- Clothing and accessories in portraits indicated social status and profession
- Family groups portrayed together emphasized lineage and familial bonds
- Veristic style popular in late Republican period gave way to more idealized Augustan classicism
Everyday life depictions
- Scenes from daily life showcased the deceased's accomplishments and social roles
- Professional tools or symbols indicated the person's occupation or trade
- Domestic scenes highlighted family life and personal relationships
- Civic or military achievements were prominently featured for elite individuals
- These depictions served as visual biographies, preserving the memory of the deceased's life
Stylistic evolution
Republican period influences
- Veristic portraiture emphasized realistic, sometimes unflattering depictions
- Strong influence of Etruscan funerary art traditions visible in early Roman works
- Focus on individual achievement and personal history in relief narratives
- Use of frontal poses and direct gazes to create a sense of presence
- Incorporation of Republican virtues like gravitas and pietas in iconography
Augustan classicism
- Shift towards idealized forms inspired by Greek classical and Hellenistic art
- Emphasis on harmony, balance, and proportional representation in reliefs
- Introduction of more complex, multi-figured narrative scenes
- Refinement of carving techniques resulting in smoother, more polished surfaces
- Adoption of allegorical and mythological themes to convey imperial ideology
Later imperial developments
- Increased use of drilled and deeply undercut relief work for dramatic effect
- Trend towards more crowded compositions with overlapping figures
- Greater emphasis on symbolism and allegory in funerary iconography
- Incorporation of eastern influences, particularly in sarcophagi designs
- Gradual shift from classical idealism to more expressive and emotional representations
Materials and techniques
Stone selection
- Marble preferred for high-quality funerary reliefs due to its fine grain and translucency
- Local limestone used for more modest monuments, often painted to imitate marble
- Imported marbles (Carrara, Pentelic) signified wealth and prestige
- Colored marbles occasionally used for decorative elements or inlays
- Stone selection influenced by availability, cost, and desired aesthetic effect
Carving methods
- Relief work began with outlining the design on a flattened stone surface
- Pointing technique used to transfer scaled-up designs from small models
- Graduated chisels and drills employed to create varying depths of relief
- Abrasives used for smoothing and polishing the finished surface
- Specialized tools developed for intricate details and undercutting
Polychromy in reliefs
- Painted details enhanced the visual impact of carved reliefs
- Natural pigments applied to highlight specific elements or create contrast
- Gilding used on high-status monuments to simulate precious metals
- Paint also served to protect the stone surface from weathering
- Traces of original polychromy often lost due to weathering and cleaning
Social and cultural context
Status and wealth display
- Elaborate funerary monuments served as statements of social standing
- Size, material quality, and complexity of reliefs indicated the patron's wealth
- Depictions of elite professions and achievements reinforced social hierarchies
- Inclusion of freedmen in family tombs reflected their rising status in Augustan society
- Competition among elites led to increasingly grand funerary displays
Family commemoration
- Multi-generational family tombs emphasized lineage and continuity
- Relief panels often depicted extended family groups or genealogical trees
- Inscriptions listed family members' titles, offices, and accomplishments
- Funerary reliefs served as visual archives of family histories
- Emphasis on familial piety aligned with Augustan moral reforms
Afterlife beliefs
- Iconography reflected evolving Roman concepts of the afterlife
- Depictions of mythological figures like Charon symbolized the journey to the underworld
- Banquet scenes represented the idea of eternal feasting in the afterlife
- Incorporation of Egyptian motifs reflected syncretic beliefs in immortality
- Gradual shift from commemoration of the deceased to ensuring their well-being in the afterlife
Notable examples
Ara Pacis reliefs
- Monumental altar dedicated to Pax Augusta (Augustan Peace) in 9 BCE
- Exterior reliefs depict processions of imperial family members and state officials
- Interior panels feature allegorical and mythological scenes related to Roman founding myths
- Exemplifies Augustan classicism in its style and composition
- Serves as both a funerary monument and a political statement of Augustan ideology
Tomb of the Haterii
- Late 1st century CE family tomb of the Haterii, a family of building contractors
- Features relief panels depicting construction scenes and architectural models
- Includes portraits of family members and representations of their professional achievements
- Demonstrates the rising social status of freedmen in the post-Augustan period
- Combines realistic depictions of daily life with more symbolic funerary imagery
Via Statilia relief
- Early 1st century CE funerary relief from a tomb on the Via Statilia in Rome
- Depicts a seated couple in a domestic setting, emphasizing marital harmony
- Shows influence of Hellenistic funerary art in its composition and style
- Exemplifies the transition from Republican verism to Augustan idealism in portraiture
- Illustrates the importance of family and domestic virtues in Roman funerary commemoration
Inscriptions and epitaphs
Formulaic elements
- Standard opening "Dis Manibus" (To the spirits of the dead) became common in Augustan period
- Use of abbreviations like "H.S.E." (Hic Situs Est - Here lies) to conserve space
- Inclusion of the deceased's age at death, often to the day
- Closing formulae like "S.T.T.L." (Sit Tibi Terra Levis - May the earth rest lightly upon you)
- Standardized layout with the deceased's name prominently displayed
Biographical information
- Names of parents, spouses, and children often included to establish family connections
- Professional titles and accomplishments listed to highlight social status
- Military service records detailed for veterans, including units and years served
- Patronage relationships sometimes mentioned, reflecting social networks
- Personal qualities and virtues of the deceased praised in poetic or prose form
Dedicatory texts
- Identification of the person(s) who commissioned the monument
- Expressions of grief and loss from family members or friends
- References to the circumstances of death or funeral rites performed
- Sometimes included warnings against tomb violation or requests for ongoing care
- Occasional inclusion of poetry or philosophical reflections on mortality
Preservation and display
In situ vs museum contexts
- Some funerary reliefs remain in their original locations along ancient roads
- Many have been removed to museums for protection and study
- In situ preservation allows for understanding of original context and placement
- Museum display enables closer examination and comparison of multiple examples
- Digital technologies increasingly used to virtually reconstruct original contexts
Conservation challenges
- Weathering and pollution pose significant threats to outdoor monuments
- Removal of original polychromy during past cleaning efforts
- Fragmentation and loss of elements over time complicates interpretation
- Balancing accessibility for study with protection from further damage
- Ethical considerations in restoration and reconstruction of damaged reliefs
Modern interpretations
- Shifting focus from purely aesthetic appreciation to social and historical analysis
- Use of scientific techniques (3D scanning, spectroscopy) to reveal new information
- Reexamination of gender roles and social structures represented in reliefs
- Growing interest in the lives of non-elite individuals depicted in funerary art
- Integration of funerary reliefs into broader studies of Roman visual culture
Influence on later art
Renaissance adaptations
- Rediscovery of ancient sarcophagi inspired Renaissance tomb designs
- Adaptation of classical motifs and compositions in relief sculpture
- Revival of Roman-style epitaphs and inscriptions in funerary monuments
- Influence on portraiture styles, blending classical idealism with individual likeness
- Use of allegorical figures from Roman mythology in commemorative art
Neoclassical revival
- 18th-century excavations sparked renewed interest in Roman funerary art
- Imitation of Roman stelae and cippi forms in cemetery monuments
- Adoption of classical drapery and poses in funerary sculpture
- Revival of Latin epitaphs and formulaic inscriptions
- Incorporation of Roman funerary symbols (inverted torches, wreaths) in modern contexts
Contemporary funerary art
- Continued use of relief carving techniques in modern grave markers
- Adaptation of classical themes to reflect contemporary values and beliefs
- Experimentation with new materials while referencing traditional forms
- Integration of personalized imagery alongside classical motifs
- Influence of Roman concepts of memory and commemoration on memorial design
Key Terms to Review (17)
Augustan ideals of family: The Augustan ideals of family refer to the social and moral principles promoted by Emperor Augustus that emphasized traditional Roman family values, including marriage, fidelity, and the role of the family unit in society. These ideals sought to strengthen the Roman state by encouraging population growth and moral integrity, reflecting a return to conservative values following a period of civil strife.
Bas-relief: Bas-relief is a sculptural technique where figures or designs project only slightly from a flat background, creating a low three-dimensional effect. This method is often used to convey depth and detail while remaining visually integrated with the surface it adorns. Bas-reliefs can be found in various artistic contexts, showcasing storytelling and intricate designs without requiring full dimensionality, making them ideal for decorative arts.
Commemoration practices: Commemoration practices refer to the rituals and artistic expressions used to honor and remember individuals, particularly in relation to death and the afterlife. These practices can encompass a variety of forms, including funerary art, monuments, and reliefs that serve as visual narratives of the deceased's life and achievements, creating a lasting legacy. In the context of ancient Rome, these practices were integral in shaping societal values and beliefs about mortality and remembrance.
Depictions of the Deceased: Depictions of the deceased refer to artistic representations created to honor, remember, and celebrate individuals who have passed away. These artworks serve as both a tribute and a means to preserve the memory of the deceased, often reflecting their social status, virtues, or significant life events through symbolic imagery. Such representations can be found in various forms, including sculptures, paintings, and reliefs, which are commonly used in funerary contexts.
Elite representation: Elite representation refers to the ways in which social and political elites are depicted and celebrated in art, particularly in funerary contexts. This concept highlights how the status and identity of individuals from privileged classes are portrayed in monuments, emphasizing their achievements, virtues, and societal roles while also reinforcing social hierarchies.
Family portrait relief: A family portrait relief is a sculptural representation of a family group, typically created in low relief, that commemorates the deceased and their lineage. These artworks were often used in funerary contexts to honor and remember the family's legacy, depicting individuals in a lifelike manner and conveying social status, familial relationships, and values. This type of relief became especially prominent during the Roman Empire as part of funerary monuments.
High relief: High relief is a sculptural technique where figures and elements project significantly from a background, creating a dramatic three-dimensional effect. This style allows for deep shadows and strong contrasts, enhancing the narrative and emotional impact of the sculpture. High relief is often utilized in monumental art, where visibility and engagement with the viewer from multiple angles are crucial.
Mythological references: Mythological references are allusions or direct mentions of figures, stories, or themes from mythology, which often serve to convey deeper meanings or cultural significance. In the context of funerary reliefs, these references can highlight the virtues of the deceased or connect them to divine qualities, elevating their status and ensuring their legacy in the afterlife.
Ponte Milvio: Ponte Milvio is an ancient Roman bridge that spans the Tiber River, located north of Rome. It is famous not only for its architectural significance but also for its association with important historical events, including the Battle of Ponte Milvio in 312 AD. The bridge is often connected to funerary reliefs as it became a prominent location for commemorative practices and memorials celebrating the lives of the deceased.
Praxitelian influence: Praxitelian influence refers to the artistic style and approach initiated by the ancient Greek sculptor Praxiteles, characterized by a focus on naturalism, graceful forms, and a sense of elegance in the portrayal of the human figure. This influence extended into the Roman world, where it shaped various forms of artistic expression, particularly in funerary reliefs, by emphasizing emotional depth and realistic representation.
Ritualistic offerings: Ritualistic offerings are items or sacrifices presented during religious ceremonies to honor deities, ancestors, or spirits. These offerings often played a significant role in funerary practices, serving as a means to ensure a favorable afterlife and maintain a connection between the living and the deceased.
Roman attitudes toward death: Roman attitudes toward death encompassed a complex blend of beliefs, rituals, and artistic expressions that reflected the significance of mortality in Roman society. The Romans viewed death as a natural part of life, emphasizing the importance of funerary practices and commemorative art to honor the deceased and ensure their legacy. This perspective shaped various cultural elements, including literature, philosophy, and monumental art, as they sought to navigate the fears and uncertainties surrounding death.
Status symbols: Status symbols are items, characteristics, or features that signify an individual's social status or wealth, often serving as a means to communicate one's position in society. In the context of funerary reliefs, these symbols play a crucial role in conveying the social identity and achievements of the deceased, as well as their family's status. Funerary reliefs can incorporate various elements that reflect the prestige of the individual being commemorated, making them not just memorials but also statements of societal standing.
The necropolis of Rome: The necropolis of Rome refers to the ancient burial grounds located outside the city's walls, primarily along the Via Appia and other major roads. These sites were significant as they served as places for interring the dead, featuring elaborate tombs and monuments that reflected the social status and beliefs of the deceased. The funerary reliefs found in these necropolises offer insights into Roman customs surrounding death and the afterlife.
The Tomb of the Scipios: The Tomb of the Scipios is an ancient burial site in Rome that served as the final resting place for members of the prominent Scipio family, known for their significant role in Roman history. This tomb is notable for its elaborate funerary reliefs that depict scenes from the lives of the deceased, reflecting both personal achievements and the family's illustrious legacy. The site illustrates the connection between funerary practices and social status in Roman culture, particularly among the elite.
The Workshop of Aulus Metellus: The Workshop of Aulus Metellus refers to a specific production site in ancient Rome known for creating funerary reliefs during the late Republican period. These reliefs are significant as they reflect the social and cultural values of the time, often depicting family portraits and important life events. The workshop is particularly noted for its realistic and expressive style, which contributed to the evolution of Roman portraiture and funerary art.
Urna tomb relief: Urna tomb reliefs are funerary sculptures typically found on the sarcophagi of the deceased in ancient Rome, illustrating scenes from the lives of the deceased or mythological themes. These reliefs often served as a way to commemorate the dead and provide a glimpse into their status, family, or virtues. They were commonly crafted in marble and were prominent in the funerary art associated with the elite classes during the Augustan period.