6.6 Domestic sculpture and furnishings
9 min read•august 21, 2024
Domestic sculpture and furnishings were integral to Roman homes during the Augustan period. These artworks reflected the tastes and values of the elite, serving both decorative and functional purposes while incorporating religious, mythological, and historical themes.
From large statues to small figurines, domestic sculptures ranged widely in size and style. Materials like , bronze, and were used to create statues, busts, reliefs, and decorative furnishings that adorned various spaces within Roman homes.
Types of domestic sculpture
- Domestic sculpture played a crucial role in Roman homes during the Augustan period, reflecting the tastes and values of the elite
- These sculptures served both decorative and functional purposes, often incorporating religious, mythological, and historical themes
- The variety of domestic sculptures ranged from large-scale statues to small portable figurines, catering to different spaces and preferences
Statues and statuettes
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- Full-figure representations of gods, heroes, and notable individuals
- Ranged in size from small tabletop figurines to life-size or larger statues
- Often placed in prominent locations such as atria or gardens to impress visitors
- Materials varied, including marble, bronze, and terracotta
- Popular subjects included Venus, Apollo, and ancestors of the household
Busts and portraits
- Depicted heads and upper torsos of individuals, typically in marble or bronze
- Served as commemorative objects for family members or revered figures
- Displayed in household shrines () or public areas of the home
- Varied in style from highly realistic to idealized representations
- Often included inscriptions identifying the subject and their achievements
Relief sculptures
- Carved or molded scenes with figures projecting from a flat background
- Commonly used to decorate walls, altars, and
- Depicted narrative scenes from , history, or
- Techniques included high relief (deeply carved) and low relief (shallow carving)
- Famous examples include the reliefs on the
Materials and techniques
- Roman sculptors employed a variety of materials and techniques, adapting Greek methods and developing new approaches
- The choice of material often depended on the intended location, function, and desired aesthetic effect of the sculpture
- Augustan period saw a revival of classical techniques and a focus on high-quality craftsmanship
Marble and stone carving
- Preferred material for high-status sculptures due to its durability and aesthetic appeal
- Carving process involved roughing out the basic form with chisels and hammers
- Fine details added using smaller tools like rasps and files
- Polishing achieved with abrasives to create smooth, lustrous surfaces
- Different types of marble used, including Italian Carrara and Greek Pentelic
Bronze casting
- Complex process involving creating a wax model, encasing it in clay, and pouring molten bronze
- Lost-wax technique allowed for intricate details and hollow interiors
- Bronzes often gilded or inlaid with precious materials for added luxury
- Allowed for creation of larger freestanding sculptures due to metal's strength
- Patination techniques used to create different surface colors and textures
Terracotta modeling
- Clay-based material shaped by hand or in molds, then fired in kilns
- Used for both small figurines and larger architectural decorations
- Allowed for mass production of affordable decorative items
- Often painted in bright colors to enhance visual appeal
- Techniques included coil building, slab construction, and press molding
Themes and subjects
- Roman domestic sculpture drew inspiration from a wide range of sources, reflecting the complex cultural landscape of the Augustan period
- Themes often served to educate, commemorate, or demonstrate the owner's cultural sophistication
- The selection of subjects could convey political allegiances, religious devotion, or personal interests
Mythological figures
- Gods and goddesses from Roman and Greek pantheons frequently depicted
- Heroes and legendary figures served as exemplars of virtue and bravery
- Scenes from popular myths illustrated on relief sculptures and decorative objects
- particularly popular in garden settings
- Representations of mythological creatures (satyrs, nymphs) in playful or decorative contexts
Historical personages
- Portraits of emperors, generals, and other notable figures displayed as signs of loyalty
- maintained family lineage and emphasized noble heritage
- Depictions of philosophers and poets demonstrated intellectual interests
- Historical events commemorated through narrative relief sculptures
- Idealized representations of virtuous Romans from the past (, )
Everyday life scenes
- Genre scenes depicting daily activities and professions
- Pastoral landscapes and rustic themes popular in villa decorations
- Sporting events and theatrical performances captured in small figurines
- Erotic scenes found in private areas of the home
- Representations of slaves and servants performing household tasks
Placement in Roman homes
- The location of sculptures within Roman homes was carefully considered to maximize their impact and meaning
- Placement often reflected the public or private nature of different spaces within the domus
- Sculptures could serve as focal points, conversation starters, or personal devotional objects depending on their location
Atrium displays
- Central courtyard served as the main reception area for visitors
- Large-scale statues or busts of ancestors placed in prominent positions
- Household shrines (lararia) with small figurines of protective deities
- Decorative fountains or water features with sculptural elements
- Portrait busts of the current head of household or important patrons
Peristyle gardens
- Colonnaded garden areas adorned with a variety of sculptural types
- Mythological figures and nature deities placed among plants and water features
- (pillars with carved heads) used as boundary markers or decorative elements
- Small shrines or altars dedicated to garden deities (, )
- Decorative relief panels integrated into garden walls or structures
Private chambers
- More intimate sculptures chosen for personal significance or aesthetic appeal
- Small figurines of protective deities placed near beds or entryways
- Erotic sculptures or paintings in bedrooms or private dining areas
- Portrait busts of family members or revered individuals in study areas
- Decorative reliefs integrated into wall paintings or furniture
Furnishings with sculptural elements
- Roman furniture often incorporated sculptural elements, blending functionality with artistic expression
- These decorative furnishings showcased the owner's wealth and taste
- Sculptural elements on furniture ranged from subtle embellishments to elaborate figural compositions
Tables and stands
- Marble table supports (trapezophora) carved with mythological figures or animal forms
- Bronze table legs shaped as lion paws or other animal motifs
- Small side tables (mensae) with relief carvings on the tops or sides
- Decorative stands for displaying sculptures or precious objects
- Folding wooden tables with bronze fittings featuring sculptural details
Lamps and candelabra
- Bronze oil lamps with figural handles or decorative reliefs on the body
- Terracotta lamps molded with scenes from mythology or daily life
- Tall bronze candelabra with sculptural bases depicting deities or nature themes
- Hanging lamps (lychnoi) with chains adorned with small sculptural elements
- Wall sconces with relief decorations or small figural supports
Decorative vessels
- Large marble kraters or vases with relief carvings used as garden ornaments
- Bronze mixing bowls (crateres) with handles shaped as mythological figures
- Silver drinking cups (skyphoi) embossed with narrative scenes
- Glass perfume bottles with molded designs or applied sculptural elements
- Ceramic tableware with appliqué figures or molded relief decorations
Stylistic influences
- Roman domestic sculpture of the Augustan period reflected a complex interplay of artistic traditions
- The emperor Augustus promoted a revival of classical Greek styles, influencing both public and private art
- Despite the emphasis on classicism, regional and personal preferences continued to shape domestic sculpture
Greek vs Roman aesthetics
- Roman appreciation for Greek art led to widespread copying of famous Greek sculptures
- Adaptation of Greek styles to suit Roman tastes and functions
- Roman preference for more realistic portraiture compared to idealized Greek forms
- Integration of Greek mythological subjects into Roman domestic contexts
- Development of distinctly Roman sculptural types (ancestor busts, triumphal imagery)
Hellenistic traditions
- Influence of dramatic and emotional Hellenistic styles on Roman sculpture
- Adoption of complex, multi-figure compositions in relief sculptures
- Use of torsion and exaggerated poses in freestanding sculptures
- Incorporation of exotic or eastern themes popularized during the Hellenistic period
- Continuation of Hellenistic traditions in small-scale decorative arts and luxury items
Augustan classicism
- Promotion of a more restrained, idealized style in official imperial art
- Emphasis on clarity, harmony, and moral virtue in sculptural representations
- Revival of 5th century BCE Greek classical forms and proportions
- Use of allegory and symbolism to convey Augustan political messages
- Influence of official Augustan style on private commissions and domestic art
Social and cultural significance
- Domestic sculpture in Augustan Rome served multiple functions beyond mere decoration
- The display and use of sculptures reflected and reinforced social hierarchies and cultural values
- Sculptural collections demonstrated the owner's wealth, education, and connection to Roman traditions
Status symbols
- Expensive materials and high-quality craftsmanship signaled wealth and refinement
- Displays of Greek originals or famous copies demonstrated cultural sophistication
- Portrait galleries of ancestors emphasized noble lineage and family prestige
- Sculptures of emperors or influential figures showed political connections
- Exotic or rare sculptures highlighted the owner's worldliness and resources
Religious functions
- Household shrines (lararia) with figurines of protective deities ensured divine favor
- Votive sculptures offered in thanks or supplication to the gods
- Representations of state cults (Vesta, Capitoline Triad) linked domestic and public religion
- Bacchic imagery in dining areas invoked themes of abundance and pleasure
- Funerary sculptures preserved memory and facilitated ancestor worship
Family commemoration
- Ancestor portraits maintained family history and emphasized continuity
- Depictions of family members in heroic or divine guises elevated their status
- Funerary reliefs narrated the achievements and virtues of the deceased
- Children's portraits celebrated family continuity and future prospects
- Wedding scenes or marital portraits reinforced family alliances and social bonds
Notable examples
- Several well-preserved examples of Augustan domestic sculpture provide insight into the art and culture of the period
- These notable works showcase the range of styles, materials, and subjects popular in Roman homes
- Many of these examples have significantly influenced our understanding of Roman domestic art
Boscoreale treasures
- Silver dining set discovered in a villa near Pompeii, buried by Vesuvius eruption
- Includes cups with relief decorations depicting Augustan triumphs and allegories
- Demonstrates the high level of craftsmanship in luxury domestic items
- Provides insights into the political imagery used in private settings
- Combination of Hellenistic and Roman stylistic elements in the decorative program
Prima Porta Augustus
- Life-size marble statue of Augustus found in the Villa of Livia
- Idealized portrayal of the emperor in military dress with bare feet (heroic nudity)
- Intricate breastplate relief depicting Roman diplomatic triumph over Parthians
- Exemplifies the official Augustan style blending realism with classical idealization
- Likely a private version of a public statue type, demonstrating imperial imagery in domestic contexts
Ara Pacis reliefs
- Altar dedicated to Pax Augusta (Augustan Peace) with extensive relief sculptures
- While a public monument, its style and themes influenced domestic art
- Depicts procession of imperial family members, showcasing Augustan dynastic imagery
- Allegorical panels with themes of Roman virtue and abundance
- Combination of realistic portraiture and idealized mythological scenes typical of the period
Conservation and study
- The preservation and analysis of Roman domestic sculpture have greatly enhanced our understanding of Augustan art and culture
- Modern conservation techniques and archaeological methods continue to reveal new insights
- Interdisciplinary approaches combine art history, archaeology, and materials science to study these artifacts
Archaeological discoveries
- Excavations of Pompeii and Herculaneum provided intact examples of domestic settings
- Underwater archaeology recovered bronze statues and other artifacts from shipwrecks
- Geophysical surveys and remote sensing techniques locate buried structures and artifacts
- Stratigraphic analysis helps date and contextualize sculptural finds
- Comparison of finds across different sites reveals patterns of production and trade
Restoration techniques
- Non-invasive cleaning methods remove accumulated dirt without damaging surfaces
- 3D scanning and printing create replicas for study and display, preserving originals
- Laser technology used for precise cleaning and analysis of materials
- Chemical analysis identifies original pigments and surface treatments
- Structural reinforcement techniques stabilize fragile or damaged sculptures
Modern interpretations
- Digital reconstructions visualize original appearances and contexts of sculptures
- Gender and social status studies examine representation in domestic art
- Analysis of production techniques and workshop practices through material evidence
- Reassessment of the relationship between public and private art in Augustan Rome
- Exploration of regional variations and local adaptations of imperial styles in domestic settings
Key Terms to Review (27)
Ancestor portraits: Ancestor portraits are realistic sculptures or painted representations of deceased family members, often displayed in homes to honor and remember them. These works served not only as a means of personal remembrance but also as a symbol of social status and lineage, reinforcing the importance of family heritage in Roman society.
Ara Pacis Augustae: The Ara Pacis Augustae, or Altar of Augustan Peace, is a monumental altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace. Commissioned by the Roman Senate in 13 BCE to honor Emperor Augustus and celebrate his return from Spain, this structure symbolizes the peace and prosperity that Augustus aimed to achieve during his reign, reflecting his broader building program, visual rhetoric in public art, and the ideological underpinnings of Augustan imagery.
Atrium: An atrium is a central open space within a Roman house or villa, often serving as the focal point of domestic life. It typically features a roof opening, called the compluvium, allowing light and rain to enter, while a shallow basin, known as the impluvium, collects water. This architectural element not only provided light and air but also facilitated social interactions and helped in displaying wealth and status.
Bacchic themes: Bacchic themes refer to artistic and decorative motifs associated with Bacchus, the Roman god of wine, revelry, and fertility. These themes often celebrate the joy of wine, festive gatherings, and the ecstatic experiences of both nature and human emotions. In the context of domestic sculpture and furnishings, bacchic themes express a sense of hedonism and indulgence, reflecting the cultural values of enjoyment and celebration in Roman society.
Bust: A bust is a sculptural representation of the upper part of a human figure, typically featuring the head, neck, and sometimes a portion of the shoulders and chest. In domestic settings, busts served not only as decorative elements but also as expressions of status, cultural identity, and personal taste. They were often made from materials such as marble, bronze, or terracotta, and could depict notable figures like politicians, philosophers, or even family members, playing a significant role in home aesthetics.
Cato: Cato, also known as Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor, was a Roman statesman, soldier, and author who lived from 234 to 149 BCE. He is best known for his conservative values and staunch advocacy for traditional Roman virtues. His influence extended to various aspects of Roman culture, including domestic life and the arts, emphasizing the importance of simplicity and moral integrity in both personal conduct and public affairs.
Cincinnatus: Cincinnatus was a Roman statesman and military leader, celebrated for his virtuous character and sense of duty. He became a symbol of selfless service to the republic after he was appointed dictator to save Rome from invasion and, upon achieving victory, willingly relinquished his power to return to his farm. This narrative ties deeply into themes of civic virtue and the ideals of Roman leadership, reflecting the values that influenced domestic sculpture and furnishings during this era.
Commemoration: Commemoration refers to the act of honoring or remembering significant people, events, or achievements through various forms of art and architecture. In the context of Roman history, this often involved monumental structures, public artworks, and inscriptions that served to celebrate the accomplishments of emperors, generals, and influential citizens while reinforcing social and political ideals.
Daily life: Daily life refers to the routine activities and experiences of individuals in their everyday existence. It encompasses the practices, customs, and social interactions that shape how people live, work, and interact with one another. In the context of domestic sculpture and furnishings, daily life highlights how these artistic expressions and objects reflect the values, status, and lifestyle of individuals during the Augustan period.
Decorative purpose: The decorative purpose refers to the intentional design and embellishment of objects and spaces to enhance aesthetic appeal and create a visual impact. In domestic settings, this can involve the use of sculptures, furnishings, and architectural elements that serve both functional and ornamental roles, showcasing artistic creativity while reflecting social status and personal taste.
Flora: In the context of domestic sculpture and furnishings, flora refers to the artistic representation of plant life and botanical themes within decorative arts. This can include motifs of flowers, leaves, and other elements of nature that are often incorporated into sculptures, pottery, and other ornamental objects found in domestic settings. The depiction of flora not only enhances aesthetic appeal but also carries symbolic meanings, often reflecting ideas of fertility, abundance, and the connection between humanity and nature.
Fresco: Fresco is a mural painting technique where water-based pigments are applied on freshly laid wet plaster, allowing the colors to become an integral part of the wall as it dries. This method was highly valued in ancient Rome for its durability and vibrant colors, making it a popular choice for decorating walls and ceilings of various structures, including private homes and public buildings.
Furniture: Furniture refers to the movable objects that are used to support various human activities, such as seating, eating, and sleeping. In the context of domestic spaces during the Augustan period, furniture played a vital role not only in functionality but also in the expression of social status and aesthetic preferences, often adorned with intricate designs and craftsmanship.
Herms: Herms are sculptural representations featuring a head, often that of a god or notable figure, mounted on a pillar or post, traditionally used as boundary markers or in domestic spaces. These sculptures were particularly popular in Roman households as decorative elements, reflecting wealth and taste while also serving practical purposes such as marking property lines or providing protection from evil spirits.
House of the Vettii: The House of the Vettii is a well-preserved Roman domus located in the ancient city of Pompeii, famous for its lavish decoration and intricate frescoes. This house, owned by two wealthy freedmen, showcases the features of high-status domestic architecture during the Roman Empire, illustrating both the social aspirations and artistic expressions of its owners through elaborate interior design and furnishings.
Idealism: Idealism is an artistic and philosophical concept that emphasizes the portrayal of subjects in an idealized manner, often depicting them as more beautiful, noble, or perfect than they are in reality. This approach seeks to convey a sense of beauty and perfection, often rooted in the values and ideals of the society creating the art.
Lararia: Lararia are small domestic shrines found in ancient Roman homes, typically dedicated to the Lares, the guardian spirits of the household. These shrines served as a focal point for daily worship and offerings, reflecting the religious beliefs and practices of the Roman family unit. Lararia were often elaborately decorated and could contain statues, altars, and other votive objects that connected the household with divine protection and favor.
Marble: Marble is a metamorphic rock formed from limestone that has undergone a transformation through heat and pressure, resulting in a dense, crystalline structure prized for its beauty and durability. In the context of ancient Rome, marble became a favored material for a variety of artistic and architectural endeavors, symbolizing wealth and power.
Mythology: Mythology refers to a collection of myths, traditional stories that explain the beliefs, customs, and natural phenomena of a particular culture. These stories often involve gods, heroes, and supernatural events, serving to convey moral lessons and cultural values. In the context of domestic sculpture and furnishings, mythology plays a crucial role by influencing the themes and representations found in art and decorative objects within Roman homes.
Peristyle: A peristyle is a type of architectural feature consisting of a continuous row of columns that surrounds a courtyard or garden, often found in classical Roman villas and domestic architecture. It serves as an important element in both the aesthetic and functional design of buildings, providing a transition between indoor and outdoor spaces while also enhancing the overall grandeur and symmetry of structures.
Praxiteles: Praxiteles was an ancient Greek sculptor, often regarded as one of the most important figures in classical sculpture. His work is characterized by its graceful proportions and lifelike quality, particularly in the representation of the human figure. Praxiteles' influence extended beyond his lifetime, inspiring subsequent generations of artists and shaping the development of sculpture during the Hellenistic period and into Roman art.
Priapus: Priapus is a deity from ancient Roman mythology associated with fertility, gardens, and male genitalia. Often depicted as a bearded man with an exaggerated phallus, he symbolizes prosperity and protection, especially in domestic settings. Statues of Priapus were commonly placed in gardens and homes to ward off evil spirits and bring good fortune, reflecting the importance of fertility in Roman culture.
Relief Sculpture: Relief sculpture is a three-dimensional artistic technique where figures or scenes are carved into a flat surface, creating a raised effect that can be viewed from one side. This form of sculpture is particularly significant in ancient Roman art, as it effectively conveys narratives and commemorates historical events in public and private spaces.
Sculptural workshops in Rome: Sculptural workshops in Rome were specialized artisan studios where skilled craftsmen created a variety of sculptures, ranging from large public monuments to smaller domestic pieces. These workshops played a crucial role in the production of art during the Augustan period, supplying decorative and functional sculptures for both public and private spaces, thus reflecting the wealth and tastes of Roman society.
Terracotta: Terracotta is a type of earthenware made from clay, which is fired at a relatively low temperature, resulting in a porous material often used for sculpture and architectural decoration. This versatile medium is not only significant for creating decorative elements but also serves practical purposes in construction and domestic settings.
Verism: Verism is an artistic style that emphasizes realistic portrayal, often highlighting the subject's age, imperfections, and individuality. In the context of Roman art, verism was particularly prevalent during the late Republican period and into the early Imperial era, as it conveyed a sense of authenticity and moral integrity, often associated with political leaders and public figures.
Villa of the Mysteries: The Villa of the Mysteries is an ancient Roman villa located near Pompeii, famous for its well-preserved frescoes that depict mysterious initiation rites related to the cult of Dionysus. The vibrant imagery found in these artworks provides significant insight into domestic life and ritual practices in Roman culture, illustrating how art and domestic spaces intertwined in Roman society.