3.2 Imperial family portraiture
7 min read•august 21, 2024
Augustus revolutionized Roman portraiture, blending idealism and realism to create a powerful imperial image. His portraits combined youthful, divine-like features with subtle hints of maturity, establishing conventions that influenced imperial art for centuries.
The Augustan style spread through statues, coins, and provincial adaptations, shaping how the empire viewed its ruler. This new artistic language reflected Augustus's political program of renewal and stability, using visual propaganda to legitimize his rule and dynasty.
Augustan portraiture tradition
- Marks a significant shift in Roman art, blending idealism with realism to create a distinctive imperial image
- Reflects Augustus's political program of renewal and stability, using visual propaganda to legitimize his rule
- Establishes conventions that influenced imperial portraiture for centuries to come
Idealized vs realistic styles
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- Combines elements of Greek idealism with Roman verism to create a new artistic language
- Emphasizes youthful, divine-like features while retaining some individual characteristics
- Employs subtle aging techniques to show Augustus's maturity without compromising his eternal youth concept
- Uses physiognomic details to convey desired personality traits (calm expression, strong jawline)
Influences from Republican era
- Incorporates the tradition of ancestor masks () in creating lifelike representations
- Retains some elements of to appeal to conservative Roman values
- Adapts the concept of from Republican portraiture to convey authority and gravitas
- Transforms the practice of displaying multiple portrait types to suit different audiences and contexts
Augustus's official portraits
- Establishes a carefully crafted and widely disseminated imperial image
- Serves as a model for subsequent emperors and imperial family members
- Reflects Augustus's political ideology and his role as princeps and pater patriae
Prima Porta statue
- Discovered in Livia's villa at Prima Porta, represents the definitive Augustan portrait type
- Depicts Augustus as , wearing military attire and addressing his troops
- Features intricate breastplate relief depicting the return of Roman standards from the Parthians
- Incorporates symbolic elements (Cupid riding a dolphin, bare feet) to allude to
Symbolic imagery and attributes
- Utilizes the laurel wreath to symbolize victory and connection to Apollo
- Includes the scroll (volumen) to represent Augustus's role as lawgiver and patron of the arts
- Employs the stance to evoke classical Greek sculpture and cultural refinement
- Incorporates the () in some portraits to reinforce divine lineage
Evolution over Augustus's reign
- Progresses from more realistic early portraits to increasingly idealized later versions
- Develops distinct portrait types for different phases of Augustus's life and rule
- Adapts facial features subtly to reflect Augustus's aging while maintaining a timeless quality
- Standardizes certain elements (hairstyle, expression) to ensure recognizability across the empire
Livia's portraiture
- Establishes the visual template for imperial women in Roman art
- Reflects Livia's influential role as Augustus's wife and mother of the future emperor Tiberius
- Serves as a model of Roman feminine virtues and imperial dignity
Hairstyle and fashion trends
- Introduces the , with a bun at the nape and a roll of hair above the forehead
- Popularizes modest yet elegant drapery, often featuring the (mantle) worn over the head
- Evolves from more naturalistic early portraits to increasingly idealized later versions
- Influences female fashion throughout the empire, setting trends for decades
Comparison to other empresses
- Contrasts with more elaborate hairstyles and jewelry of later empresses (Agrippina the Younger)
- Establishes a more restrained and dignified image compared to Hellenistic queen portraits
- Serves as a benchmark for portraits of subsequent imperial women (Octavia, Julia)
- Emphasizes Livia's role as materfamilias of the imperial household through visual cues
Imperial princes and heirs
- Showcases Augustus's dynastic plans and the importance of succession in imperial ideology
- Demonstrates how portraiture was used to promote potential heirs to the public
- Reflects the changing fortunes and status of imperial family members over time
Marcellus and Agrippa
- Portrays Marcellus with youthful features, emphasizing his potential as Augustus's nephew and son-in-law
- Depicts Agrippa with more mature, stern features befitting his role as Augustus's right-hand man
- Utilizes similar hairstyles to Augustus to visually link them to the imperial family
- Adapts portrait styles to reflect their changing roles and relationships to Augustus over time
Gaius and Lucius Caesar
- Represents Augustus's adopted sons and intended heirs with idealized, princely features
- Employs the (civic crown) in some portraits to symbolize their status as saviors of citizens
- Depicts them in the guise of (leaders of youth) to appeal to the younger generation
- Adapts their portraits posthumously to emphasize their tragic early deaths and heroic status
Tiberius's changing image
- Evolves from early portraits resembling Augustus to later ones emphasizing his own features
- Reflects Tiberius's complex relationship with Augustus and his reluctant acceptance of power
- Incorporates elements of Julio-Claudian portraiture while maintaining some individual characteristics
- Demonstrates how imperial portraiture could be used to navigate political transitions and legitimacy
Julio-Claudian family groups
- Visualizes the concept of imperial dynasty and continuity of rule
- Emphasizes the interconnectedness of the imperial family and their shared divine heritage
- Serves as powerful propaganda tools, displaying the strength and unity of the ruling family
Ara Pacis reliefs
- Depicts Augustus and his family in a processional relief on the Altar of Peace
- Showcases various members of the imperial family, including Livia, Tiberius, and younger princes
- Employs hierarchical scaling to emphasize Augustus's importance within the family group
- Balances realistic individual features with idealized, divine-like qualities
Gemma Augustea cameo
- Presents a complex allegorical scene celebrating Augustan rule and divine favor
- Portrays Augustus enthroned alongside Roma, with family members and deities surrounding them
- Utilizes the layered nature of sardonyx to create a hierarchical composition
- Demonstrates the use of luxury arts in disseminating imperial imagery to elite audiences
Portraiture on coinage
- Serves as a widespread medium for distributing imperial portraits throughout the empire
- Combines portraiture with symbolic imagery and text to convey political messages
- Reflects changes in imperial ideology and succession plans over time
Augustus's numismatic imagery
- Evolves from early coins featuring more realistic portraits to later idealized versions
- Includes various portrait types to suit different audiences and messages (youthful, mature, divine)
- Pairs Augustus's portrait with significant symbols (Capricorn, laurel wreath, sidus Iulium)
- Utilizes reverse imagery to commemorate important events and achievements of his reign
Family members on coins
- Introduces portraits of potential heirs (Gaius and Lucius Caesar) to familiarize the public with successors
- Depicts Livia in the guise of various goddesses (Pax, Justitia) to emphasize her virtues
- Features posthumous portraits of Julius Caesar to reinforce Augustus's divine lineage
- Adapts portrait styles of family members to align with Augustus's official imagery
Provincial imperial portraits
- Demonstrates the spread of imperial imagery throughout the Roman Empire
- Reflects local artistic traditions and interpretations of official portrait types
- Serves as a means of expressing loyalty to the imperial family in far-flung regions
Local adaptations of official types
- Incorporates regional stylistic preferences while maintaining recognizable Augustan features
- Varies in quality and accuracy depending on local resources and artistic skill
- Adapts clothing and attributes to suit local customs and expectations
- Demonstrates the flexibility of imperial imagery in different cultural contexts
Cult statues of the imperial family
- Establishes the practice of imperial cult worship in provinces through sculptural representations
- Blends traditional divine iconography with imperial portrait features
- Varies in scale and setting, from small household shrines to monumental temple statues
- Reflects the deification of Augustus and Livia in their lifetimes in some eastern provinces
Posthumous portraiture
- Continues the Augustan image beyond his lifetime, emphasizing his lasting legacy
- Demonstrates the evolution of imperial portraiture into divine representation
- Serves as a model for subsequent deified emperors and their commemoration
Divus Augustus imagery
- Incorporates divine attributes (radiate crown, idealized features) into Augustus's portrait
- Pairs Augustus with personifications of Roman virtues and deities in sculptural groups
- Adapts existing portrait types to create a standardized image of the deified emperor
- Influences the portrayal of subsequent deified emperors throughout Roman history
Commemorative monuments
- Includes large-scale structures like the and the
- Features relief sculptures depicting Augustus's achievements and family members
- Incorporates inscriptions and symbolic imagery to reinforce Augustus's legacy
- Serves as models for later imperial forums and commemorative structures
Legacy and influence
- Establishes a visual language for imperial power that persists throughout Roman history
- Shapes the development of Western portraiture and concepts of rulership imagery
- Continues to fascinate scholars and artists, influencing modern interpretations of power and propaganda
Impact on later imperial portraiture
- Provides a template for subsequent emperors to create their own distinctive portrait styles
- Influences the balance between idealism and realism in Roman imperial art for centuries
- Establishes conventions for depicting imperial family members and potential heirs
- Shapes the development of imperial iconography and symbolic attributes
Reception in modern scholarship
- Sparks ongoing debates about the relationship between art and politics in ancient Rome
- Influences interpretations of Roman history and the nature of Augustan rule
- Inspires interdisciplinary studies combining art history, archaeology, and classical studies
- Continues to shape our understanding of the power of visual culture in shaping public opinion
Key Terms to Review (28)
Allegory of Peace: The Allegory of Peace refers to artistic representations that symbolize and celebrate the concept of peace, often depicted through various figures and elements in sculpture and painting. This theme was particularly prominent during the Augustan period, where it served as a powerful political tool to convey the message of stability and prosperity under the Roman Empire, reflecting ideals related to both the imperial family and architectural achievements.
Ara Pacis: The Ara Pacis, or Altar of Peace, is a monumental altar dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of peace, and was commissioned by the Roman Senate in 13 BCE to honor Augustus's return from Spain and Gaul. This structure is not only an important piece of propaganda celebrating peace and prosperity but also embodies Augustan ideology, reflecting the social, political, and cultural transformations during his reign.
Augustan Classicism: Augustan Classicism refers to a cultural and artistic movement in Rome during the reign of Emperor Augustus that aimed to revive the ideals of classical Greek art and literature, promoting harmony, balance, and ideal beauty. This movement sought to establish a new aesthetic that celebrated Rome's power and stability while connecting it with the revered traditions of ancient Greece, influencing various aspects of Roman art, architecture, and public representation.
Augustus of Primaporta: The Augustus of Primaporta is a famous statue of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, depicting him in a heroic pose that conveys power and authority. This statue is not just an artistic representation but also a political statement, embodying the ideals of the early Roman Empire and the transition to imperial rule.
Aulus Vitellius: Aulus Vitellius was a Roman Emperor who ruled in 69 AD during the Year of the Four Emperors. His reign is often characterized by its brief duration and his extravagant lifestyle, which ultimately led to his downfall. Vitellius is significant in the study of imperial family portraiture because his image was heavily propagated through coins and statues, reflecting his attempt to legitimize his rule and connect with the Julio-Claudian dynasty's tradition.
Contrapposto: Contrapposto is an artistic technique used to create a sense of dynamic balance in a figure by positioning the weight on one leg, which causes the rest of the body to shift naturally. This stance not only enhances realism but also imbues sculptures and portraits with a sense of movement and individuality. The technique has roots in classical art and became particularly significant in portraying the human form during the Augustan period, where it influenced various forms of portraiture and architectural sculpture.
Corona civica: The corona civica, or civic crown, was a prestigious Roman honor awarded to individuals who saved the life of a fellow citizen in battle. It represented not only bravery but also the values of loyalty and self-sacrifice, embodying the ideals of Roman civic virtue. This award connected to various aspects of Roman culture, including the resurgence of interest in civic responsibility during periods of cultural renaissance, its representation in imperial family portraiture as a symbol of virtue and achievement, and its role in the visual language that conveyed power and authority within the Roman state.
Dignitas: Dignitas refers to a person's moral worth or dignity in Roman society, embodying the respect, reputation, and honor that one holds within the community. It was crucial for the social standing of individuals, especially those in political life, and influenced how they were perceived by others. In the context of portraiture, dignitas played a significant role in how imperial family members were depicted, emphasizing their noble qualities and reinforcing their authority and status.
Divine ancestry: Divine ancestry refers to the belief or portrayal of individuals, particularly rulers and their families, as having connections to gods or divine figures. This concept serves to legitimize authority and elevate status by suggesting that rulers are not only human but also possess a divine lineage, which can be seen in various artistic representations throughout history.
Divus augustus imagery: Divus Augustus imagery refers to the visual representations and iconography associated with Augustus after his death, depicting him as a divine figure. This type of imagery helped establish his legacy as a god and solidified his position in the Roman pantheon, influencing how subsequent emperors were portrayed and perceived in relation to divinity.
Dynastic imagery: Dynastic imagery refers to the artistic and visual representations that convey the lineage, power, and legitimacy of a ruling family or dynasty. This type of imagery often emphasizes familial connections and the continuity of power through visual symbols, portraits, and architectural elements, helping to reinforce the authority of the ruling class within a specific historical context.
Early imperial style: Early imperial style refers to the distinctive artistic and architectural characteristics that emerged in Rome during the early years of the Roman Empire, particularly under Augustus. This style is marked by a blend of classical Greek elements with innovative Roman features, reflecting the transition from the Roman Republic to an imperial system, while emphasizing power, stability, and the divine nature of the emperor.
Forum of Augustus: The Forum of Augustus is an ancient public space built in Rome by Emperor Augustus around 2 BCE, designed as a monumental complex to showcase his achievements and reinforce his political power. This forum was strategically positioned adjacent to the Forum of Julius Caesar, symbolizing the continuity and legitimacy of Augustus' rule following the fall of the Roman Republic.
High relief: High relief is a sculptural technique where figures and elements project significantly from a background, creating a dramatic three-dimensional effect. This style allows for deep shadows and strong contrasts, enhancing the narrative and emotional impact of the sculpture. High relief is often utilized in monumental art, where visibility and engagement with the viewer from multiple angles are crucial.
Idealized portraiture: Idealized portraiture refers to the artistic representation of individuals in a way that emphasizes perfection and beauty, often at the expense of realistic features. This style aims to convey the subject’s virtues and social status, presenting them as exemplary figures. In the context of Imperial family portraiture and Hellenistic influences, idealized portraiture serves to promote political power and cultural ideals through visual art.
Imagines: Imagines refer to the wax death masks or likenesses of deceased ancestors that were used in ancient Rome, primarily to honor and commemorate the deceased's memory. These likenesses played a significant role in familial and political identity, serving as powerful symbols of lineage and continuity. They were often displayed during funerary processions and incorporated into portraiture and architecture, reinforcing the status and heritage of the imperial family.
Imperator: Imperator is a Latin term that originally meant 'commander' and was used in the Roman Republic to denote a military leader who had achieved a significant victory. The title gained prominence during the rise of Octavian, later known as Augustus, as it became associated with his authority and power, marking the transition from Republic to Empire. As Augustus established his rule, 'imperator' became an integral part of the imperial title, symbolizing both military command and the broader notion of sovereign power.
Imperial virtue: Imperial virtue refers to the qualities and moral values that were expected of the ruling family in ancient Rome, particularly during the reign of Augustus. This concept was central to the portrayal of the imperial family in art and sculpture, where they were depicted with attributes that conveyed strength, wisdom, piety, and a connection to the divine. The emphasis on imperial virtue was a way to legitimize their authority and foster loyalty among the populace.
Julian Star: The Julian Star is a symbol associated with the Julian family, particularly Julius Caesar and his descendants, that signifies divine ancestry and legitimacy. This star became a prominent element in imperial family portraiture, reinforcing the political narrative of Augustus and his lineage by connecting them to the celestial realm and portraying them as favored by the gods.
Nodus hairstyle: The nodus hairstyle is a distinctive coiffure commonly associated with Roman women during the late Republican and early Imperial periods, characterized by a knot or bun at the back of the head. This hairstyle became emblematic of Roman elite women and was often depicted in imperial family portraiture, symbolizing both status and adherence to traditional feminine ideals.
Palla: The palla is a traditional Roman garment, resembling a shawl or wrap, worn primarily by women. It was often draped over the shoulders and could be made from various materials, such as wool or linen, symbolizing modesty and social status. In the context of imperial family portraiture, the palla plays a significant role in representing the virtues and ideals of women in Roman society.
Paterfamilias: The paterfamilias refers to the male head of a Roman family or household, who held significant legal authority and responsibility over family members and property. This role included not just the patriarchal control of familial affairs but also the duty to maintain family honor and manage the family's wealth, which often extended to multiple generations. The paterfamilias was a critical figure in Roman society, embodying the values of authority, protection, and lineage continuity.
Principes iuventutis: Principes iuventutis translates to 'the leading youth' in Latin and refers to a social class in ancient Rome that consisted of the elite young men from prominent families, often linked to the imperial family. This group played a crucial role in the political and cultural landscape of Rome, particularly during the Augustan period, as they were groomed for leadership and military roles within society. Their portrayal in art and portraiture reflects not just their status but also the values and ideals promoted by the imperial family.
Propaganda art: Propaganda art is a form of visual communication that aims to influence public opinion and promote specific political agendas or ideologies. This type of art often uses idealized imagery and symbolism to create a desired perception of authority or virtue, making it a powerful tool for rulers seeking to shape the beliefs and attitudes of their subjects. The use of propaganda art is especially evident in imperial family portraiture, where the imagery serves to enhance the public image of leaders and their families.
Res gestae divi augusti: The 'res gestae divi augusti' is a first-person account of the achievements of the Roman Emperor Augustus, detailing his life and accomplishments from his own perspective. This text serves as a foundational document for understanding how Augustus established the Principate, represented his imperial family through portraiture, restored traditional Roman religious practices, and embodied virtues and concepts that were central to Roman identity.
Sculptor's handbook: A sculptor's handbook refers to a collection of guidelines, techniques, and stylistic conventions that sculptors in ancient Rome, particularly during the Augustan period, used to create realistic and idealized portraits. These handbooks provided essential knowledge on proportion, anatomy, drapery, and facial expressions, shaping how imperial family portraiture was crafted to reflect authority and virtue.
Sidus iulium: The sidus iulium, or 'Julian star,' is a celestial symbol associated with Augustus, representing divine approval and legitimacy for his rule. This star was said to have appeared at the time of Julius Caesar's assassination, marking Caesar as a god and suggesting Augustus’s lineage as divinely sanctioned, thus enhancing Augustus's position as emperor.
Veristic portraiture: Veristic portraiture is an artistic style that emphasizes realism and the accurate depiction of individual features, particularly in Roman portrait sculpture. This approach often highlights age, wrinkles, and imperfections to convey wisdom, experience, and gravitas, particularly in the context of Roman leaders and elites. The style was used to reinforce social status and personal identity, connecting deeply with cultural values of authenticity and sincerity.