8.3 Lacquerware and woodworking

Ancient Chinese lacquerware, a decorative art form dating back to the Neolithic period, showcases the ingenuity of early craftsmen. This unique craft, born from the cultivation of lacquer trees and the discovery of their sap's properties, became a hallmark of Chinese material culture.

The production of lacquerware involved intricate woodworking and multi-step lacquer application processes. From everyday utensils to elite status symbols and ritual objects, lacquerware served diverse functions in ancient Chinese society, reflecting the artistic and cultural influences of different regions and time periods.

Origins of lacquerware

• Lacquerware, a distinctive form of decorative art, originated in ancient China and played a significant role in the material culture of early Chinese civilizations
• The origins of lacquerware can be traced back to the Neolithic period, with the earliest known examples dating to around 5,000 BCE
• The development of lacquerware was closely tied to the cultivation of the lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum) and the discovery of the unique properties of its sap

Lacquer tree cultivation

• The lacquer tree, native to central and southern China, was domesticated and cultivated specifically for its sap, which was used in the production of lacquerware
• Lacquer tree cultivation required specific environmental conditions, such as well-drained, acidic soils and a humid climate, which limited its geographic distribution
• The cultivation of lacquer trees was a specialized skill, with knowledge passed down through generations of farmers and craftsmen

Sap harvesting techniques

• Harvesting lacquer sap was a labor-intensive process that required precise timing and techniques to ensure the quality and quantity of the sap
• Sap was typically harvested during the summer months when the trees were actively growing and producing sap
• Harvesting involved making precise incisions in the bark of the tree and collecting the sap that oozed out, a process that was repeated multiple times throughout the season
• The collected sap was then processed and refined to remove impurities and prepare it for use in lacquerware production

Lacquerware production process

• The production of lacquerware was a complex, multi-step process that required a high level of skill and expertise
• The process involved creating a base object, usually made of wood or fabric, and then applying multiple layers of lacquer to create a smooth, durable, and decorative surface
• Each step in the production process required specific tools, materials, and techniques, which were developed and refined over centuries of lacquerware production

Woodworking for lacquerware bases

• Many lacquerware objects, such as boxes, trays, and bowls, were constructed using wooden bases
• Woodworkers carefully selected and prepared the wood, ensuring it was free of defects and suitable for lacquering
• The wood was then shaped, joined, and smoothed to create the desired form, often using specialized tools and techniques

Fabric and other base materials

• In addition to wood, lacquerware bases were also made from fabric, such as silk or hemp, which was stretched over a frame to create a smooth surface for lacquering
• Other materials, such as bamboo, paper, and even metal, were occasionally used as bases for lacquerware objects
• The choice of base material depended on the intended function and style of the finished object

Lacquer application methods

• Lacquer was applied to the base object in multiple thin layers, with each layer allowed to dry and cure before the next was applied
• The most common application method was brushing, using fine, soft-bristled brushes to ensure an even coating
• Other methods, such as pouring, dipping, and spraying, were also used depending on the size and shape of the object and the desired effect

Drying and polishing techniques

• After each layer of lacquer was applied, the object was left to dry and cure in a controlled environment, such as a humidity chamber
• Once fully cured, the lacquer surface was polished to a high gloss using abrasive materials, such as fine sand or ash, and polishing tools, such as stone or ceramic discs
• The drying and polishing process was repeated multiple times to achieve the desired thickness, smoothness, and shine of the lacquer surface

Carved lacquer techniques

• Carved lacquer, also known as tihong, was a specialized technique that involved layering different colors of lacquer and then carving intricate designs into the surface
• The process began by applying a base layer of black or dark lacquer, followed by layers of contrasting colors, such as red or yellow
• Once the layers were fully cured, the design was carved into the surface using sharp, precise tools, revealing the different colors beneath
• Carved lacquer objects were highly prized for their intricate designs and technical complexity

Decorative styles and motifs

• Lacquerware objects were decorated with a wide range of styles and motifs, reflecting the artistic and cultural influences of different regions and time periods
• These decorative elements served both aesthetic and symbolic purposes, often conveying social status, religious beliefs, or cultural values

Geometric patterns

• Geometric patterns, such as spirals, zigzags, and lattice designs, were among the earliest and most common decorative elements in lacquerware
• These patterns were often created using incised lines, inlaid materials, or contrasting colors of lacquer
• Geometric designs were used to create borders, backgrounds, or repeating patterns on lacquerware objects

Nature-inspired designs

• Nature-inspired motifs, such as flowers, birds, and landscapes, were popular in lacquerware decoration throughout Chinese history
• These designs often reflected the changing seasons, with specific plants and animals associated with different times of the year
• Nature-inspired designs were created using a variety of techniques, including painting, inlay, and carving, and were often highly stylized and symbolic

Mythical and religious symbolism

• Lacquerware objects were often decorated with mythical creatures, such as dragons and phoenixes, which held important symbolic meanings in Chinese culture
• Religious symbols, such as the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and Taoist immortals, were also common in lacquerware decoration, particularly on objects used in ritual or ceremonial contexts
• These symbolic motifs were often combined with other decorative elements, such as clouds, waves, or auspicious characters, to create complex and meaningful designs

Regional variations in style

• Lacquerware styles and motifs varied by region, reflecting the diverse cultural influences and artistic traditions of different parts of China
• For example, lacquerware from the Yangzi River delta region often featured intricate carved designs and inlaid materials, while lacquerware from the Sichuan region was known for its bold, colorful patterns and use of gold and silver leaf
• Regional variations in lacquerware style were influenced by factors such as local materials, cultural preferences, and the tastes of regional elites and patrons

Functions of lacquerware objects

• Lacquerware objects served a wide range of functions in ancient Chinese society, from everyday utensils to elite status symbols and ritual implements
• The durability, water-resistance, and aesthetic qualities of lacquerware made it a highly valued material for a variety of purposes

Ritual and ceremonial use

• Lacquerware objects played important roles in religious and ceremonial contexts, such as offerings to ancestors, sacrifices to deities, and burial goods for the deceased
• Ritual lacquerware objects included incense burners, altar sets, and sacrificial vessels, which were often decorated with symbolic motifs and inscriptions
• The use of lacquerware in ritual contexts reflected the high value placed on the material and its association with elite culture and religious beliefs

Elite status symbols

• Lacquerware objects, particularly those with intricate designs and precious materials, were highly prized as status symbols among the Chinese elite
• Owning and displaying fine lacquerware objects, such as wine cups, serving trays, and cosmetic boxes, was a way for elites to demonstrate their wealth, taste, and social standing
• The production and exchange of high-end lacquerware objects was often closely tied to the political and social networks of the elite, with gifts and commissions serving to reinforce alliances and hierarchies

Everyday utensils and containers

• In addition to their ceremonial and elite functions, lacquerware objects were also used as everyday utensils and containers in ancient Chinese households
• Common lacquerware objects included bowls, plates, cups, and storage boxes, which were valued for their durability, water-resistance, and ease of cleaning
• The use of lacquerware for everyday objects reflects the increasing availability and affordability of the material over time, as production techniques and trade networks expanded

Lacquerware in funerary contexts

• Lacquerware objects played significant roles in ancient Chinese burial customs and funerary practices, reflecting beliefs about the afterlife and the status of the deceased
• The inclusion of lacquerware in tombs and burial sites provides important insights into the social, cultural, and technological contexts of ancient Chinese societies

Burial customs and lacquerware

• Lacquerware objects were commonly included as grave goods in ancient Chinese tombs, alongside other valuable materials such as bronze, jade, and silk
• The selection and arrangement of lacquerware objects in tombs often reflected the status, occupation, and personal tastes of the deceased, as well as cultural beliefs about the afterlife
• For example, tombs of high-ranking individuals often included large sets of lacquerware vessels and utensils, symbolizing their wealth and social standing in the afterlife

Lacquer coffins and burial suits

• In some periods and regions of ancient China, lacquerware was used to create elaborate coffins and burial suits for the deceased
• Lacquer coffins, often decorated with intricate designs and inlaid with precious materials, were used to protect and preserve the body of the deceased
• Lacquer burial suits, made by covering the body in multiple layers of lacquer-soaked cloth, were believed to confer immortality and protect the deceased in the afterlife

Lacquerware grave goods

• In addition to coffins and burial suits, a wide range of lacquerware objects were included as grave goods in ancient Chinese tombs
• These objects included personal items, such as cosmetic boxes and mirrors, as well as household utensils, such as cups, bowls, and serving trays
• The inclusion of everyday objects in tombs reflects beliefs about the continuation of earthly life in the afterlife, with the deceased requiring familiar items for their comfort and sustenance
• Lacquerware grave goods also served symbolic and ritual purposes, such as the inclusion of wine vessels for ancestral offerings or the use of lacquerware figurines to represent servants and attendants for the deceased

Woodworking techniques and tools

• Woodworking played a crucial role in the production of lacquerware objects, providing the base forms and structures for lacquer application
• Ancient Chinese woodworkers developed a range of sophisticated techniques and tools to create the intricate and precise forms required for lacquerware production

Joinery methods

• Woodworkers used various joinery methods to construct lacquerware bases, such as boxes, trays, and furniture
• Common joinery techniques included mortise and tenon, dovetail, and miter joints, which provided strength and stability to the wooden structures
• The choice of joinery method depended on the size, shape, and intended function of the object, as well as the skill and preferences of the woodworker

Carving and inlay

• Carving and inlay techniques were often used to decorate lacquerware bases before the application of lacquer
• Woodcarvers used a range of tools, such as chisels, gouges, and knives, to create intricate designs and patterns on the surface of the wood
• Inlay techniques involved cutting precise shapes or channels into the wood and filling them with contrasting materials, such as mother-of-pearl, ivory, or precious metals

Woodworking tools and workshops

• Ancient Chinese woodworkers used a variety of specialized tools, such as saws, planes, chisels, and drills, to shape and refine lacquerware bases
• Woodworking tools were often made from high-quality materials, such as bronze or steel, and were carefully maintained to ensure their effectiveness and longevity
• Woodworking workshops were important centers of lacquerware production, bringing together skilled artisans and specialized equipment to create high-quality objects
• The organization and layout of woodworking workshops reflected the division of labor and hierarchies within the craft, with master artisans overseeing the work of apprentices and assistants

Significant lacquerware artifacts

• Throughout Chinese history, lacquerware artisans created a wide range of significant and influential artifacts that showcase the technical, artistic, and cultural achievements of different periods and regions
• These artifacts provide valuable insights into the development and evolution of lacquerware production, as well as the broader social, political, and economic contexts in which they were created

Earliest known examples

• The earliest known examples of Chinese lacquerware date back to the Neolithic period, with fragments of lacquered objects found in archaeological sites such as Hemudu in Zhejiang province
• These early lacquerware objects, which include simple cups, bowls, and plates, demonstrate the basic techniques of lacquer application and decoration, such as incised designs and red and black color schemes
• The presence of lacquerware in Neolithic contexts suggests that the material was already highly valued and widely traded, laying the foundation for its later development and refinement

Warring States period masterpieces

• The Warring States period (475-221 BCE) saw a significant development in lacquerware production, with the creation of large, complex objects and the use of new decorative techniques, such as gold and silver inlay
• One of the most famous lacquerware artifacts from this period is the Zeng Hou Yi gui, a large, intricately decorated lacquer vessel found in the tomb of a high-ranking nobleman in Hubei province
• The Zeng Hou Yi gui features a complex arrangement of geometric and animal motifs, executed in gold and silver inlay on a black lacquer background, demonstrating the technical and artistic sophistication of Warring States lacquerware

Han dynasty innovations

• The Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) witnessed further innovations in lacquerware production, including the development of carved lacquer techniques and the use of new color schemes and decorative motifs
• One of the most significant Han lacquerware artifacts is the Mawangdui lacquer banner, a large, painted lacquer screen found in the tomb of Lady Dai in Hunan province
• The Mawangdui banner features a complex composition of mythical creatures, auspicious symbols, and cosmic diagrams, executed in vibrant colors on a black lacquer background, reflecting the cosmological and religious beliefs of the Han elite

Tang and Song dynasty refinements

• The Tang (618-907 CE) and Song (960-1279 CE) dynasties saw further refinements in lacquerware production, with the creation of highly intricate carved lacquer objects and the use of new decorative techniques, such as mother-of-pearl inlay
• One of the most famous Tang lacquerware artifacts is the Shōsōin lacquer ensemble, a large collection of lacquerware objects and fragments found in the Shōsōin repository in Nara, Japan, which had been gifted by Tang emperors to Japanese rulers
• The Shōsōin ensemble includes a wide range of lacquerware objects, from everyday utensils to ritual vessels and musical instruments, demonstrating the diversity and sophistication of Tang lacquerware production
• Song dynasty lacquerware is known for its refined, minimalist aesthetic and the use of subtle, monochromatic color schemes, as exemplified by the Ding ware-style carved lacquer dish, which features a simple, elegant design of lotus flowers and leaves on a black lacquer background

Lacquerware trade and exchange

• Lacquerware objects were highly valued commodities in ancient China and played important roles in trade, diplomacy, and cultural exchange both within China and with neighboring regions
• The production and circulation of lacquerware objects reflects the complex economic, political, and social networks that shaped the development of Chinese civilization

Lacquerware as diplomatic gifts

• Lacquerware objects were often used as diplomatic gifts between Chinese states and foreign powers, serving to establish and maintain political alliances and cultural ties
• The exchange of lacquerware gifts was particularly important in the Han dynasty, when Chinese emperors sought to extend their influence and control over neighboring regions through a combination of military force and cultural diplomacy
• For example, the Han emperor Wudi sent lacquerware objects, along with other luxury goods such as silk and jade, as gifts to the rulers of the Xiongnu, a nomadic confederacy that posed a significant threat to Han borders

Lacquerware in the Silk Road trade

• Lacquerware objects were also important commodities in the long-distance trade networks that connected China with Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, known collectively as the Silk Road
• Chinese lacquerware objects, along with other luxury goods such as silk, porcelain, and tea, were highly prized by foreign merchants and elites and were traded for goods such as horses, glassware, and precious stones
• The presence of Chinese lacquerware objects in archaeological sites along the Silk Road, such as Begram in Afghanistan and Palmyra in Syria, attests to the wide circulation and cultural influence of these objects

Influence on other cultures' crafts

• The trade and exchange of Chinese lacquerware objects also had significant impacts on the art and craft traditions of other cultures, particularly in East and Southeast Asia
• For example, the lacquerware traditions of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam were heavily influenced by Chinese techniques and styles, with local artisans adapting and modifying these influences to create distinct regional styles
• The presence of Chinese lacquerware objects in the royal collections and elite households of these regions also served to reinforce cultural ties and hierarchies, with the possession and display of Chinese lacquerware serving as a marker of status and sophistication

Conservation and analysis

• The study and conservation of ancient Chinese lacquerware objects presents a range of challenges and opportunities for scholars, scientists, and museum professionals
• Advances in analytical techniques and conservation practices have provided new insights into the materials, techniques, and cultural contexts of these objects, while also ensuring their preservation for future generations

Deterioration and preservation challenges

• Lacquerware objects are subject to a range of deterioration processes, including physical damage, chemical degradation, and biological attack
• Common forms of deterioration include cracking, flaking, and discoloration of the lacquer surface, as well as warping, shrinkage, and insect damage to the wooden or fabric base
• The preservation of lacquerware objects requires careful control of environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and light exposure, as