Glossary

4.3 Zhou dynasty philosophy and literature

7 min read•august 19, 2024

The Zhou dynasty, spanning from 1046 to 256 BCE, was a pivotal era in Chinese philosophy. It birthed diverse schools of thought like , , and , which shaped Chinese civilization for millennia. These philosophies emerged as responses to political and social upheaval.

Zhou literature laid the foundation for Chinese cultural development. Key works include the , , and . These texts span , history, philosophy, and divination, offering insights into ancient Chinese intellectual and social life.

Key philosophies of Zhou dynasty

  • The Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) was a formative period for Chinese philosophy, giving rise to diverse schools of thought that shaped Chinese civilization
  • These philosophies emerged as a response to political and social upheaval, as thinkers sought to establish order, morality, and effective governance

Confucianism

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  • Founded by (551-479 BCE), emphasizes virtuous behavior, filial piety, and social harmony
  • Key concepts include (benevolence), (proper conduct), and the that define societal roles
  • Confucius believed that moral cultivation of individuals, especially leaders, was essential for a stable society
  • Confucian texts include the , , and

Daoism

  • Attributed to the sage , Daoism advocates living in harmony with the Dao, or the natural way of the universe
  • Emphasizes simplicity, spontaneity, and non-action () as means to achieve inner peace and balance
  • Key texts include the and the , which use metaphors and paradoxes to convey Daoist principles
  • Daoism also has a mystical and cosmological dimension, with practices aimed at achieving immortality

Legalism

  • Developed by and , Legalism prioritizes strict laws, rewards, and punishments as tools for maintaining order and control
  • Views human nature as inherently selfish and argues that people must be governed through fear and incentives
  • Legalist ideas were influential during the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) but fell out of favor in later periods

Mohism

  • Founded by , promotes universal love, frugality, and pragmatism
  • Rejects Confucian emphasis on ritual and hierarchy, arguing that all people should be treated equally
  • Mohists were known for their skills in logic, mathematics, and defensive warfare
  • Mohism declined after the but had a lasting impact on Chinese thought

Yin and Yang

  • represent complementary opposites that are interconnected and interdependent
  • Yin is associated with femininity, darkness, and passivity, while Yang represents masculinity, light, and activity
  • The interaction and balance of Yin and Yang are believed to create harmony in the universe
  • This concept influenced various aspects of Chinese culture, including medicine, art, and divination

Literature in Zhou dynasty

  • The Zhou dynasty produced some of the most influential works in Chinese literary history, laying the foundation for later cultural developments
  • These texts span various genres, including poetry, history, philosophy, and divination, and provide insights into the intellectual and social world of ancient China

Book of Songs

  • A collection of 305 poems dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BCE, compiled by Confucius
  • Includes folk songs, court odes, and sacrificial hymns that reflect the daily lives, emotions, and values of the Zhou people
  • Served as a model for later Chinese poetry and influenced the development of literary aesthetics

Book of Documents

  • Also known as the Shangshu, this text contains speeches, decrees, and narratives attributed to ancient kings and ministers
  • Provides a historical record of the early Zhou dynasty and promotes Confucian ideals of virtuous governance
  • Authenticity of some chapters has been debated, with later additions and revisions likely

Book of Rites

  • A collection of texts describing the social norms, ceremonies, and of the Zhou dynasty
  • Includes the Liji, Zhouli, and Yili, which detail the proper conduct for various occasions and roles
  • Reflects the Confucian emphasis on li (propriety) as a means to maintain social order and harmony

I Ching

  • Also known as the Book of Changes, the I Ching is a divination text that uses hexagrams to interpret the will of Heaven
  • Consists of 64 hexagrams, each with a symbolic meaning and associated commentary
  • Influenced various fields, including philosophy, literature, and art, and remains widely used for divination and self-reflection

Zuo zhuan

  • A commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical chronicle of the state of Lu from 722 to 481 BCE
  • Provides detailed narratives and dialogues that expand on the terse entries in the original text
  • Valued for its vivid prose, psychological insights, and moral lessons, and serves as a model for later Chinese historical writing

Influence of Zhou philosophy

  • The philosophical traditions that emerged during the Zhou dynasty had a profound and lasting impact on Chinese civilization and beyond
  • These ideas shaped Chinese culture, politics, and society for centuries and continue to resonate in the modern world

Impact on Chinese culture

  • Confucian values, such as filial piety, respect for authority, and social harmony, became deeply ingrained in Chinese culture
  • Daoist concepts of nature, simplicity, and spontaneity influenced Chinese art, literature, and religion
  • The Yin and Yang principle permeated various aspects of Chinese life, from medicine to aesthetics

Lasting legacy in East Asia

  • Zhou philosophical traditions spread to neighboring regions, such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, through cultural exchange and diffusion
  • Confucianism, in particular, became a dominant ideology in these countries, shaping their political and social structures
  • The shared heritage of Zhou thought contributed to a sense of cultural affinity and common values among East Asian societies

Comparisons to Western thought

  • While developed independently, Zhou philosophies bear some similarities to Western philosophical traditions
  • Confucianism's emphasis on virtue ethics and social roles has been compared to Aristotelian and Stoic ideas
  • Daoism's focus on nature and the limits of language resonates with aspects of Romanticism and postmodern thought
  • These parallels suggest common human concerns and the potential for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding

Archaeology of Zhou texts

  • Archaeological discoveries have shed new light on the production, transmission, and preservation of Zhou dynasty texts
  • These findings provide valuable insights into the material culture of ancient China and the evolution of Chinese writing

Excavated bamboo slips

  • Many Zhou texts were originally written on bamboo slips, which were bound together to form books
  • Excavations at sites such as Guodian and Mawangdui have uncovered well-preserved bamboo slip texts, including previously unknown works
  • These discoveries have expanded our understanding of the diversity and complexity of Zhou literature

Oracle bones vs bronze inscriptions

  • Oracle bones, used for divination during the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), represent the earliest known form of Chinese writing
  • Bronze inscriptions, found on ritual vessels and weapons of the Zhou dynasty, demonstrate the development of writing and the importance of lineage and ancestry
  • Comparing these two forms of writing reveals the evolution of Chinese script and the shift from divinatory to commemorative functions

Preservation techniques

  • The survival of ancient Chinese texts depended on various preservation techniques, such as storing bamboo slips in dry, sealed environments
  • Some texts were also copied onto more durable materials, such as silk or paper, which allowed them to be transmitted over time
  • The discovery of well-preserved texts in tombs and caches has provided insights into the physical characteristics and production methods of Zhou books

Dating and authentication

  • Determining the age and authenticity of excavated texts is crucial for understanding their historical and cultural context
  • Techniques such as radiocarbon dating, textual analysis, and archaeological context are used to establish the provenance of Zhou texts
  • Debates over the authenticity of some texts, such as the Guodian Laozi, highlight the challenges and importance of rigorous scholarship in this field

Social context of Zhou works

  • The production and circulation of texts in the Zhou dynasty were closely tied to the social and educational landscape of the time
  • Understanding the social context of these works sheds light on their intended audiences, functions, and significance

Education in Zhou dynasty

  • Education in the Zhou dynasty was primarily aimed at training officials and aristocrats for government service
  • Schools were established in the capitals and major cities, where students studied classic texts, history, and ritual
  • The emphasis on moral cultivation and mastery of the Confucian canon shaped the content and transmission of Zhou literature

Literacy rates

  • Literacy in the Zhou dynasty was largely restricted to the elite classes, such as nobles, officials, and scholars
  • The complexity of the Chinese writing system and the limited availability of education meant that the majority of the population remained illiterate
  • The oral transmission of stories, poems, and teachings played a significant role in the dissemination of ideas and culture

Oral traditions vs written works

  • While the Zhou dynasty is known for its written texts, oral traditions continued to play an important role in the transmission of knowledge and culture
  • Many of the poems in the Book of Songs, for example, were originally folk songs that circulated orally before being collected and written down
  • The interplay between oral and written traditions shaped the development and reception of Zhou literature

Role of scholars and scribes

  • Scholars and scribes played a crucial role in the production, preservation, and interpretation of Zhou texts
  • Confucian scholars, in particular, were responsible for compiling, editing, and commenting on the classic texts that formed the basis of Chinese education and thought
  • Scribes, who were trained in the art of writing and record-keeping, were essential for the functioning of the Zhou bureaucracy and the transmission of official documents
  • The social status and influence of scholars and scribes reflect the importance of textual culture in the Zhou dynasty

Key Terms to Review (31)

Analects: The Analects is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese philosopher Confucius and his disciples, reflecting the values and principles of Confucianism. This text serves as a foundational document in Chinese philosophy, emphasizing moral virtues, proper conduct, and the importance of relationships in society. The influence of the Analects extends across various dynasties, shaping philosophical thought, state ideology, and rituals associated with governance and societal values.
Ancestor Worship: Ancestor worship is a religious practice that involves honoring and venerating deceased family members, believing that their spirits can influence the living. This practice is deeply rooted in various cultures and plays a significant role in the social and religious fabric of ancient China, connecting familial lineage with spiritual beliefs and rituals.
Book of Documents: The Book of Documents, also known as the Shangshu, is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature and a foundational text in the philosophical and political thought during the Zhou dynasty. It contains a collection of historical documents, speeches, and decrees that were meant to guide rulers and officials in moral governance, emphasizing virtues like benevolence and righteousness. This text plays a crucial role in reflecting the values and ideologies that underpinned Zhou society and has influenced later philosophical discourse.
Book of Rites: The Book of Rites is an ancient Chinese text that outlines the rituals, ceremonies, and social etiquette important to the Zhou dynasty. It serves as a vital source for understanding the philosophical and cultural values of the time, emphasizing the importance of propriety, respect for ancestors, and the role of rituals in maintaining social harmony and order. This text also plays a significant role in Confucian thought, as it underscores the importance of ritual in governance and personal conduct.
Book of Songs: The Book of Songs, also known as the Shijing, is one of the oldest collections of Chinese poetry, dating back to the Zhou dynasty. This anthology consists of 305 poems that cover various themes such as love, agriculture, and rituals, reflecting the social, political, and cultural life during that period. As an essential text in Confucianism, it played a significant role in shaping literature and philosophy in ancient China.
Confucianism: Confucianism is a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing morality, social relationships, and justice. It has played a crucial role in shaping Chinese society, culture, and governance throughout history, influencing various aspects such as political structures and educational values.
Confucius: Confucius was a Chinese philosopher and educator who lived from 551 to 479 BCE, known for his teachings on ethics, morality, and proper social relationships. His thoughts became the foundation of Confucianism, which deeply influenced Chinese society, culture, and government throughout history. The principles he established about respect, responsibility, and hierarchy are particularly relevant in understanding the philosophy and literature of the Zhou dynasty, the state ideology during the Han dynasty, and the rituals upheld by the state.
Daodejing: The Daodejing is a foundational text of Daoism, attributed to the sage Laozi, that emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao, or the natural way of the universe. This ancient philosophical work explores concepts such as simplicity, humility, and compassion, promoting a worldview that values balance and non-action (wu wei). The Daodejing significantly influenced not only Chinese philosophy but also literature and cultural practices during the Zhou dynasty.
Daoism: Daoism is an ancient Chinese philosophy and religious tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao, or 'the Way,' which represents the fundamental principle that underlies the universe. This philosophy advocates for simplicity, spontaneity, and connection with nature, and has influenced various aspects of Chinese culture, including politics, art, and spirituality.
Five Cardinal Relationships: The Five Cardinal Relationships is a Confucian concept that outlines the essential social relationships that govern human interactions. These relationships include ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. They serve as the foundation for moral behavior and social harmony, emphasizing the importance of roles and responsibilities within each relationship.
Han Feizi: Han Feizi is a foundational text of Legalism, written by the philosopher Han Fei during the Warring States period of ancient China. It presents a pragmatic approach to governance, emphasizing strict laws and harsh punishments as essential tools for maintaining order and control within society. The ideas articulated in Han Feizi reflect the broader philosophical debates of the time, particularly in relation to Confucianism and Daoism, showcasing the tension between differing views on human nature and the role of government.
Historical Records: Historical records refer to the documented evidence of past events, societies, and cultures, serving as a vital resource for understanding history. These records can include a variety of formats such as official documents, literary works, inscriptions, and chronicles, which together provide insights into the philosophies, beliefs, and practices of ancient civilizations. In the context of Zhou dynasty philosophy and literature, historical records play a crucial role in preserving the intellectual and cultural legacy of the period, offering a lens through which to interpret its philosophical developments and literary achievements.
Hundred Schools of Thought: The Hundred Schools of Thought refers to a flourishing period of philosophical development in ancient China, particularly during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, where various schools of thought emerged, each proposing different ideas on governance, ethics, and human nature. This intellectual movement marked a significant shift from traditional values and laid the foundation for many schools of thought that shaped Chinese culture and society, influencing everything from politics to education.
I Ching: The I Ching, or Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese text that serves as a divination manual and philosophical treatise. It is one of the oldest Chinese classics, providing insights into the nature of change and the underlying patterns of the universe. The text employs a system of hexagrams derived from combinations of broken and unbroken lines to interpret various life situations, linking it to both philosophical reflection and shamanistic practices.
Laozi: Laozi is an ancient Chinese philosopher and writer, traditionally credited as the founder of Daoism and author of the 'Dao De Jing,' a foundational text that outlines his teachings. His ideas emphasize harmony with the Dao, or the Way, which influences both personal behavior and governance. Laozi's teachings are pivotal to understanding the philosophical landscape during the Zhou dynasty, where literature began to explore ideas about ethics, morality, and the nature of existence.
Legalism: Legalism is a Chinese philosophical school that emphasizes strict adherence to laws and regulations, advocating that a strong centralized authority is essential for maintaining social order and control. This approach became influential during the late Warring States period and shaped the governance of the Qin dynasty, stressing the importance of law over morality, tradition, or ethical considerations.
Legalism vs. Moralism: Legalism and moralism represent two contrasting philosophical approaches to governance and ethics in ancient China. Legalism emphasizes strict adherence to laws, punishment, and order, while moralism focuses on moral virtues, ethical conduct, and the cultivation of character. In the context of Zhou dynasty philosophy and literature, these ideologies reflect the broader debates around authority, ethics, and the role of the ruler in society.
Li: Li is a key concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly in Confucianism, representing the idea of proper behavior, ritual propriety, and social etiquette. It emphasizes the importance of manners and rituals in maintaining harmony and order within society, linking individuals' actions to their moral and ethical responsibilities. In historical contexts, this term shaped societal norms and state ideology, influencing governance and public conduct throughout various dynasties.
Li si: Li si refers to a philosophical concept that emphasizes the importance of ritual and propriety in Chinese society. It is rooted in the belief that social harmony and order are maintained through established norms, practices, and etiquette. This concept was pivotal in shaping the moral and ethical framework during the Zhou and Qin dynasties, influencing literature, governance, and cultural identity.
Mencius: Mencius, also known as Mengzi, was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the Warring States period and is considered the most significant figure in Confucianism after Confucius himself. He expanded on Confucian teachings, emphasizing the innate goodness of human nature and the importance of moral leadership, which had lasting impacts on Chinese philosophy and governance.
Mohism: Mohism is a philosophical system founded by Mozi during the Warring States period in ancient China, emphasizing universal love, meritocracy, and utilitarianism. It presented a significant challenge to Confucianism by advocating for a more egalitarian society and prioritizing the welfare of the common people over the rigid social hierarchy upheld by Confucian ideals. This philosophy contributed to the broader discourse on ethics and governance during the Zhou dynasty.
Mozi: Mozi was an influential philosopher during the Warring States period in ancient China, known for founding the philosophical school of Mohism. He emphasized ideas such as universal love, meritocracy, and the rejection of aggression and war, challenging the more established Confucian ideas of his time. His teachings aimed to promote social harmony and practical governance, making him a significant figure in the development of Chinese philosophy during the Zhou dynasty.
Poetry: Poetry is a form of literary expression that uses rhythmic and often metaphorical language to evoke emotions, create imagery, and convey complex ideas. In the context of Zhou dynasty philosophy and literature, poetry served not just as a means of artistic expression but also as a vehicle for moral teachings, reflections on nature, and the exploration of human relationships.
Ren: Ren is a fundamental concept in Confucian philosophy, often translated as 'benevolence' or 'humaneness.' It represents the ideal relationship between people, emphasizing compassion, empathy, and moral integrity. This principle is central to the moral teachings of Confucianism and influences social interactions, ethical behavior, and governance throughout Chinese history, particularly during significant periods like the Zhou and Han dynasties.
Rituals: Rituals are structured and repeated actions, often with symbolic meaning, that are performed in specific contexts to express beliefs, values, or cultural practices. In ancient societies, they served as a means of connecting individuals to their community, their ancestors, and the divine. The significance of rituals can be seen through philosophical texts and literature that emphasize moral values and social harmony, as well as in the use of writing systems to record and interpret these ceremonial practices.
Warring States Period: The Warring States Period (475-221 BCE) was a time of intense conflict and political fragmentation in ancient China, following the decline of the Zhou Dynasty. This era was characterized by the emergence of several powerful states vying for dominance, leading to significant military innovations, philosophical developments, and cultural advancements that would shape Chinese civilization.
Wu wei: Wu wei is a fundamental concept in Daoism that translates to 'non-action' or 'effortless action.' It embodies the idea of aligning oneself with the natural flow of the universe, suggesting that one should take action that is spontaneous and unforced. This principle emphasizes simplicity, humility, and the importance of yielding rather than striving, which is crucial in understanding the philosophical and artistic expressions found in ancient Chinese culture.
Xunzi: Xunzi was an influential Chinese philosopher of the Warring States period, known for his contributions to Confucian thought, emphasizing a pragmatic and realistic approach to human nature and society. He argued that human beings are inherently selfish and require education and ritual to cultivate moral behavior, differing from earlier Confucians like Mencius, who believed in the innate goodness of humans. His ideas shaped the philosophical landscape during the Zhou dynasty, influencing literature, ethics, and governance.
Yin and Yang: Yin and Yang is a fundamental concept in Chinese philosophy representing dualism and the interconnectedness of opposites. This principle suggests that seemingly contrary forces are interconnected and interdependent, creating a dynamic balance essential for harmony in the universe. In the context of Zhou dynasty philosophy and literature, yin and yang serve as a framework for understanding the natural world, morality, and human behavior, influencing both Confucian and Daoist thought.
Zhuangzi: Zhuangzi is a foundational text of Daoism attributed to the philosopher Zhuang Zhou, who lived around the 4th century BCE during the Warring States period. The text emphasizes themes such as spontaneity, the relativity of concepts, and the importance of aligning with the Dao, or the natural way of the universe. Zhuangzi's ideas challenge conventional beliefs and social norms, highlighting a profound philosophical approach that influenced both literature and religious practices within Daoism.
Zuo Zhuan: Zuo Zhuan, or 'Chronicles of Zuo,' is an ancient Chinese historical text that serves as a commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals. It covers the period from 722 to 481 BCE and provides detailed accounts of political events, social customs, and moral lessons. The text is significant for its insights into the philosophical underpinnings of the Zhou dynasty, particularly reflecting the values and ethical considerations that influenced literature and governance during this time.
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