12.3 Yinxu Shang dynasty capital

Yinxu, the late Shang dynasty capital, offers a window into ancient Chinese civilization. Located in Henan Province, this archaeological site has yielded invaluable artifacts and structures from 1300-1046 BC, including oracle bones with early Chinese writing and elaborate bronze vessels.

Excavations at Yinxu have revealed a complex urban center with palaces, workshops, and royal tombs. The site's discoveries, particularly the oracle bones, have revolutionized our understanding of Shang society, politics, and religion, making Yinxu crucial for studying early Chinese history.

Yinxu archaeological site

• Yinxu is one of the most important archaeological sites in China, providing crucial insights into the late Shang dynasty (1300-1046 BC)
• The site has yielded a wealth of artifacts and features that shed light on Shang society, politics, religion, and technology
• Yinxu's discovery and excavation have been pivotal in the development of Chinese archaeology and the understanding of early Chinese civilization

Location of Yinxu

Anyang in Henan Province

• Yinxu is located near the modern city of Anyang in Henan Province, central China
• The site is situated along the banks of the Huan River, a tributary of the Yellow River
• Yinxu's location in the fertile Yellow River valley was strategic for agriculture, trade, and political control

History of Yinxu

Capital of late Shang dynasty

• Yinxu served as the capital of the Shang dynasty during its later period, from around 1300 BC to 1046 BC
• The Shang dynasty was the first historically documented dynasty in China, known for its advanced bronze technology and complex social structure
• Yinxu was the center of political, economic, and religious power during this period

Occupied 1300 BC to 1046 BC

• The Yinxu site was occupied for over 250 years, from approximately 1300 BC to 1046 BC
• This period saw the reign of the last 12 Shang kings, who ruled from Yinxu
• The city was eventually destroyed and abandoned after the Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty in 1046 BC

Archaeological excavations at Yinxu

Scientific excavations since 1928

• Scientific excavations at Yinxu began in 1928, led by the Chinese archaeologist Li Ji and the Academia Sinica
• These early excavations uncovered the remains of palaces, tombs, and workshops, revealing the scale and complexity of the Shang capital
• Ongoing excavations since then have continued to expand our understanding of the site and the Shang dynasty

Oracle bone pit discovery in 1936

• In 1936, a large pit containing over 17,000 oracle bones was discovered at Yinxu
• Oracle bones are turtle plastrons and ox scapulae used for divination, inscribed with the earliest known form of Chinese writing
• The discovery of the oracle bone pit was a landmark event in the study of early Chinese writing and Shang dynasty history

Layout of Yinxu

Palace area

• The palace area at Yinxu was the center of political power, where the Shang kings and their court resided
• Excavations have revealed the foundations of large, rammed-earth platforms that supported wooden palaces and temples
• The palace area also included ceremonial spaces, such as altars and sacrificial pits

Royal cemetery

• The royal cemetery at Yinxu contains the tombs of Shang kings, queens, and other high-ranking individuals
• The tombs are large, subterranean chambers accessed by ramps, often accompanied by satellite burials of attendants and sacrificial victims
• The most famous royal tomb is that of Fu Hao, a Shang queen and military leader, which contained over 1,900 grave goods

Workshops and residences

• Yinxu had a large area dedicated to craft production, particularly bronze casting and ceramic manufacture
• Excavations have uncovered the remains of foundries, kilns, and other workshop structures
• The site also includes residential areas for the city's population, ranging from elite compounds to more modest dwellings

Significant archaeological finds

Oracle bones with early Chinese writing

• The oracle bones found at Yinxu bear the oldest known form of Chinese writing, featuring a complex system of characters and syntax
• The inscriptions on the oracle bones record questions posed to ancestors and deities, along with the divination results and eventual outcomes
• These texts provide invaluable insights into Shang religion, politics, and daily life

Bronze ritual vessels

• Yinxu is renowned for its exquisite bronze ritual vessels, which were used in ceremonies and as symbols of power and status
• The bronzes display a high level of craftsmanship and artistic sophistication, with intricate decorations and inscriptions
• Major vessel types include ding tripods, gui food containers, and hu wine vessels

Elaborate elite burials

• The royal and elite tombs at Yinxu are notable for their size, complexity, and rich grave goods
• In addition to bronze vessels, the tombs contain jade ornaments, stone and bone carvings, and other luxury items
• The burials also feature chariots, weapons, and the remains of sacrificial animals and humans, reflecting Shang funerary practices and beliefs

Oracle bone inscriptions

Divination questions and answers

• The oracle bone inscriptions primarily record questions asked during divination rituals, along with the answers obtained through the interpretation of cracks in the bones
• Questions cover a wide range of topics, including military campaigns, hunting expeditions, weather, agriculture, and the health and activities of the royal family
• The answers provide a unique window into Shang decision-making processes and the role of divination in political and religious life

Genealogy of Shang kings

• Many oracle bone inscriptions mention the names and genealogies of Shang kings, allowing scholars to reconstruct the sequence and relationships of the dynasty's rulers
• The inscriptions also record the posthumous names and temple names of the kings, which were used in ancestor worship and ritual contexts
• This genealogical information has been crucial in establishing a chronology for the late Shang period and understanding the dynastic succession

Shang dynasty history and politics

• The oracle bone texts offer glimpses into various aspects of Shang history and politics, such as military conquests, diplomatic relations, and administrative practices
• Inscriptions mention wars and alliances with neighboring states, the appointment of officials, and the management of royal estates and workshops
• The texts also reveal the central role of the Shang king as the supreme political and religious authority, responsible for maintaining order and communicating with the ancestral spirits

Bronze casting at Yinxu

Piece-mold casting technique

• The Shang bronzes at Yinxu were produced using the piece-mold casting technique, which involved creating complex clay molds in multiple sections
• The molds were assembled around a clay core, and molten bronze was poured into the space between the core and the mold
• This technique allowed for the creation of large, hollow vessels with intricate surface decorations and inscriptions

Ritual vessels vs weapons

• The bronze objects found at Yinxu can be broadly divided into two categories: ritual vessels and weapons
• Ritual vessels, such as ding tripods and gui containers, were used in ceremonial contexts and often bore inscriptions commemorating important events or individuals
• Bronze weapons, including dagger-axes (ge), spears, and arrowheads, reflect the importance of warfare and hunting in Shang society

Royal burials at Yinxu

Tomb of Fu Hao

• The tomb of Fu Hao, a consort of King Wu Ding, is one of the most significant discoveries at Yinxu
• Fu Hao held a high status in the Shang court, with oracle bone inscriptions indicating her role as a military leader and ritual specialist
• Her tomb contained over 1,900 grave goods, including bronze vessels, jade ornaments, and weapons, as well as the remains of sacrificial victims

Chariot burials

• Many royal and elite tombs at Yinxu feature chariot burials, with the remains of wooden chariots and horse skeletons placed in the tomb chambers
• Chariots were symbols of power and status in Shang society, used in warfare, hunting, and ceremonial processions
• The presence of chariots in burials reflects the importance of these vehicles in Shang elite culture and military practices

Human and animal sacrifices

• The practice of human and animal sacrifice is evident in the royal tombs at Yinxu, with the remains of victims found in the tomb chambers and sacrificial pits
• Human sacrifices likely included servants, slaves, and prisoners of war, who were meant to accompany the deceased into the afterlife
• Animal sacrifices, including dogs, horses, and cattle, were also common, with their remains often placed in specific arrangements within the tomb

Yinxu and Shang society

Highly stratified social classes

• The archaeological evidence from Yinxu reveals a highly stratified Shang society, with clear distinctions between the ruling elite, craftsmen, and commoners
• The size and richness of tombs, as well as the differential access to luxury goods and resources, reflect the social hierarchy and inequality in Shang society
• The elite classes, centered around the Shang king and his family, held political, religious, and economic power, while the majority of the population were farmers, laborers, and slaves

Powerful Shang kings

• The Shang kings at Yinxu were the supreme rulers of the dynasty, with absolute authority over political, military, and religious affairs
• Oracle bone inscriptions and other evidence portray the Shang kings as powerful, semi-divine figures who communicated with ancestral spirits and led military campaigns
• The kings were also the chief ritual specialists, responsible for conducting ceremonies and maintaining the cosmic order

Warfare and military power

• Warfare was a central aspect of Shang society, as evidenced by the numerous weapons and military-related artifacts found at Yinxu
• The Shang kings led military campaigns against neighboring states and tribes, expanding their territory and securing resources
• The Shang army was well-organized and equipped, with chariots, bronze weapons, and a hierarchical command structure

Yinxu's influence on later dynasties

Model for Zhou dynasty capitals

• The layout and organization of Yinxu served as a model for the capitals of the succeeding Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BC)
• The Zhou adopted many of the Shang's political, religious, and cultural practices, including the use of bronze ritual vessels and the practice of ancestor worship
• The Zhou capitals, such as Feng and Hao, shared similar features with Yinxu, including palace complexes, ritual centers, and workshops

Enduring bronze vessel styles

• The bronze vessel styles developed at Yinxu had a lasting impact on Chinese art and culture, influencing the production of bronzes in later dynasties
• The Shang's emphasis on ritual vessels and their symbolic significance continued in the Zhou and later periods
• Many of the vessel types and decorative motifs first seen at Yinxu became canonical in the Chinese bronze tradition

Yinxu as a World Heritage Site

Inscription in 2006

• Yinxu was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006, recognizing its outstanding universal value and significance in the history of Chinese civilization
• The World Heritage listing acknowledges Yinxu's importance as a testament to the development of early Chinese writing, bronze technology, and urban planning
• The inscription also highlights the site's role in shaping our understanding of the Shang dynasty and its lasting influence on Chinese culture

Conservation challenges

• As with many archaeological sites, Yinxu faces various conservation challenges, including environmental degradation, urban development, and tourism pressures
• The rammed-earth foundations and other earthen structures at the site are particularly vulnerable to erosion and weathering
• Efforts are being made to protect and preserve the site, including the establishment of a museum, the implementation of conservation measures, and the development of sustainable tourism practices