10.2 Shamanism and divination

Ancient China's spiritual landscape was deeply influenced by shamanism and divination. These practices played a crucial role in connecting the human and spirit worlds, shaping political decisions, and guiding daily life.

Shamans acted as intermediaries, conducting rituals and communicating with ancestors and deities. Divination methods like oracle bones and the Yijing were used to seek guidance on important matters. These practices evolved over time, reflecting changing social and cultural contexts.

Shamanism in ancient China

• Shamanism played a central role in ancient Chinese religion and society, particularly during the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE)
• Shamans served as intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds, communicating with ancestors, deities, and natural forces through trance states and ritual practices
• Archaeological evidence such as oracle bones, bronze vessels, and jade artifacts provide insights into the beliefs and practices associated with ancient Chinese shamanism

Role of shamans

• Conducted divination rituals to seek guidance from ancestors and deities on matters of state, warfare, agriculture, and personal affairs
• Performed healing ceremonies and exorcisms to treat illness, expel evil spirits, and restore balance and harmony
• Presided over sacrificial offerings and burial rites to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife and maintain the favor of the ancestors
• Acted as political advisors and religious authorities, wielding significant influence over the ruling elite and shaping the ideology and worldview of ancient Chinese society

Shamanic rituals and practices

• Entering altered states of consciousness through drumming, dancing, chanting, and the use of hallucinogenic substances to communicate with the spirit world
• Performing animal sacrifices (cattle, sheep, pigs) and human sacrifices (war captives, slaves) to appease ancestors and deities and secure blessings and protection
• Conducting ritual battles and exorcisms to ward off evil spirits, natural disasters, and enemy forces, often using weapons such as spears, axes, and bows
• Engaging in spirit journeys and soul retrieval to recover lost souls, heal the sick, and restore balance and harmony to individuals and communities

Shamanic paraphernalia and artifacts

• Bronze ritual vessels (ding tripods, gui tureens) used for preparing and serving sacrificial offerings of food and drink to ancestors and deities
• Jade objects (bi discs, cong tubes) believed to possess magical properties and used in shamanic rituals and burials to ensure the well-being of the deceased in the afterlife
• Ceremonial weapons (ge dagger-axes, yue battle-axes) used in ritual battles and exorcisms to ward off evil spirits and enemy forces
• Drums, bells, and other musical instruments used to induce trance states, communicate with the spirit world, and accompany shamanic dances and chants

Divination practices in ancient China

• Divination was a fundamental aspect of ancient Chinese religion and statecraft, used to seek guidance and legitimacy from ancestors and deities in decision-making
• Various methods of divination were practiced, including oracle bone divination, milfoil divination, and tortoise shell divination
• Divination manuals and texts, such as the Yijing (Book of Changes), codified the principles and procedures of divination and shaped the intellectual and philosophical traditions of ancient China

Oracle bone divination

• Involved inscribing questions or statements on ox scapulae or turtle plastrons, applying heat to create cracks, and interpreting the patterns of the cracks to obtain answers from ancestors and deities
• Widely practiced during the Shang dynasty, with thousands of inscribed oracle bones discovered at the Shang capital of Anyang, providing invaluable insights into Shang history, society, and religion
• Questions asked covered a wide range of topics, including military campaigns, hunting expeditions, agricultural yields, weather patterns, and the health and well-being of the royal family

Milfoil divination

• Used stalks of the yarrow plant (Achillea millefolium) to generate hexagrams, which were then interpreted according to the principles of the Yijing (Book of Changes)
• Became increasingly popular during the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) and later periods, eventually surpassing oracle bone divination in importance
• Associated with the philosophical and cosmological concepts of yin and yang, the five elements, and the eight trigrams, which formed the basis of much of later Chinese thought and culture

Tortoise shell divination

• Involved applying heat to the underside of a tortoise shell to create cracks, which were then interpreted to obtain answers from ancestors and deities
• Less commonly practiced than oracle bone divination, but still attested in the archaeological record, particularly in the form of inscribed tortoise shells from the Shang and early Zhou periods
• May have been associated with specific lineages or regions, as suggested by the distribution of tortoise shell divination artifacts

Divination manuals and texts

• The Yijing (Book of Changes) is the most famous and influential of the ancient Chinese divination texts, compiled during the Western Zhou period (1046-771 BCE) and later expanded and commentated upon in the classical period
• Other important divination texts include the Shijing (Book of Odes), the Shanhaijing (Classic of Mountains and Seas), and the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn Annals), which contain references to divination practices and beliefs
• Divination manuals and texts played a key role in the standardization and transmission of divination knowledge and techniques, and in the development of correlative cosmology and moral philosophy in ancient China

Archaeological evidence of shamanism and divination

• Excavations at Shang dynasty sites, particularly the capital city of Anyang, have yielded a wealth of archaeological evidence related to shamanism and divination
• This evidence includes oracle bones, bronze ritual vessels, jade artifacts, and the remains of sacrificial pits and divination workshops
• Analysis of this evidence has shed light on the nature and evolution of shamanic and divinatory practices in ancient China, and their relationship to other aspects of Shang society and culture

Shang dynasty oracle bone pits

• Large pits containing tens of thousands of inscribed oracle bones have been discovered at Anyang, demonstrating the scale and importance of oracle bone divination in Shang state religion and decision-making
• The pits are often associated with the foundations of palaces and temples, suggesting a close link between divination and political power in Shang society
• The content of the oracle bone inscriptions, which include questions about military campaigns, hunting expeditions, and the welfare of the royal family, provide a unique window into the concerns and priorities of the Shang elite

Divination workshops and production sites

• Excavations at Anyang and other Shang sites have uncovered evidence of specialized workshops and production sites dedicated to the manufacture of divination materials and tools
• These include bone and shell processing areas, where oracle bones and tortoise shells were prepared for inscription, as well as kilns and furnaces used for heating the bones and shells to create cracks for divination
• The presence of these workshops and production sites suggests a high degree of organization and specialization in the practice of divination in Shang society, and the existence of a professional class of diviners and craftsmen

Shamanic burials and grave goods

• Burials of individuals believed to be shamans or ritual specialists have been discovered at Shang and other ancient Chinese sites, often accompanied by rich grave goods and sacrificial offerings
• These burials often include bronze ritual vessels, jade objects, and ceremonial weapons, as well as the remains of sacrificed animals and humans, suggesting the high status and importance of shamans in ancient Chinese society
• Analysis of the grave goods and burial practices associated with these shamanic burials has provided insights into the nature of shamanic power and authority, and the ways in which shamans mediated between the human and spirit worlds

Evolution of shamanism and divination

• Shamanism and divination have deep roots in ancient Chinese history and culture, with evidence of shamanic practices and beliefs dating back to the Neolithic period (c. 8000-2000 BCE)
• The Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE) represents the peak of shamanic and divinatory practices in ancient China, with a highly developed and institutionalized system of state religion and decision-making centered around the figure of the shaman-king
• In later periods, shamanism and divination underwent significant changes and transformations, adapting to new social, political, and intellectual contexts while still retaining their basic principles and techniques

Neolithic origins and development

• The earliest evidence of shamanic practices in China comes from Neolithic sites such as Jiahu (c. 7000-5800 BCE) and Banpo (c. 4800-3600 BCE), where carved bone flutes, turtle shells, and other artifacts suggest the existence of music, dance, and divination in early Chinese religion
• The development of agriculture, sedentism, and social stratification during the Neolithic period may have contributed to the emergence of specialized shamanic roles and the increasing importance of ancestor worship and divination in Chinese society
• The spread of Neolithic cultures across China, such as the Yangshao and Longshan, may have facilitated the exchange and diffusion of shamanic and divinatory practices and beliefs

Shang dynasty peak and standardization

• The Shang dynasty represents the apogee of shamanism and divination in ancient China, with a highly developed and institutionalized system of state religion and decision-making centered around the figure of the shaman-king
• Oracle bone divination reached its peak during the Shang period, with thousands of inscribed oracle bones discovered at the Shang capital of Anyang, demonstrating the scale and importance of divination in Shang political and religious life
• The Shang state also sponsored the production of elaborate bronze ritual vessels and jade artifacts, which were used in shamanic rituals and ceremonies to communicate with ancestors and deities and to ensure the well-being of the state and its people

Decline and transformation in later periods

• The fall of the Shang dynasty and the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) marked a significant shift in the nature and role of shamanism and divination in ancient Chinese society
• While shamanic practices and beliefs continued to be important, they became increasingly marginalized and subordinated to the emerging philosophical and ethical traditions of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism
• The development of the Yijing (Book of Changes) and other divination texts during the Zhou period also contributed to the rationalization and systematization of divination practices, and the emergence of correlative cosmology and moral philosophy in ancient China

Shamanism and divination in ancient Chinese society

• Shamanism and divination were not just religious practices in ancient China, but also played a crucial role in the political, social, and cultural life of ancient Chinese society
• Shamans and diviners were often closely associated with the ruling elite, serving as advisors, ritual specialists, and intermediaries between the human and spirit worlds
• The practice of divination, in particular, was used to legitimize political authority and decision-making, and to shape the ideology and worldview of ancient Chinese society

Role in political decision-making

• Divination was used by Shang kings and other rulers to seek guidance and approval from ancestors and deities on matters of state, such as military campaigns, diplomatic relations, and the appointment of officials
• The results of divination were often used to justify and legitimize political decisions, and to demonstrate the ruler's mandate from Heaven and the support of the ancestors
• The institutionalization of divination in the Shang state bureaucracy, with the establishment of specialized divination workshops and the appointment of official diviners, further underscores the political importance of divination in ancient Chinese society

Influence on social hierarchy and elite culture

• Shamanism and divination were closely associated with the ruling elite in ancient China, with shamans and diviners often holding high positions in the social and political hierarchy
• The possession of shamanic knowledge and skills, as well as access to divination materials and tools, was a mark of elite status and authority in ancient Chinese society
• The elite culture of the Shang and later periods was heavily influenced by shamanic and divinatory practices and beliefs, as reflected in the elaborate bronze ritual vessels, jade artifacts, and other luxury goods used in elite burials and ceremonies

Relationship to ancestor worship and mythology

• Shamanism and divination were closely linked to ancestor worship and mythology in ancient Chinese religion and society
• Shamans and diviners served as intermediaries between the living and the dead, communicating with ancestors through divination and ritual practices to seek their guidance and protection
• The ancestors were believed to have a powerful influence over the lives of their descendants, and the practice of divination was seen as a way to maintain the favor and support of the ancestors and to ensure the well-being of the living
• Ancient Chinese mythology, such as the stories of the sage-kings and the creation of the world, often featured shamanic and divinatory themes and motifs, reflecting the central role of these practices in the worldview and ideology of ancient Chinese society

Regional variations and cultural exchanges

• While shamanism and divination were widespread and influential throughout ancient China, there were also significant regional variations and cultural exchanges that shaped the development and evolution of these practices over time
• The northern and southern regions of China, in particular, developed distinct traditions of shamanism and divination, reflecting differences in geography, ecology, and cultural contact with neighboring societies
• The spread of shamanic and divinatory practices along trade routes and frontiers also facilitated cultural exchanges and interactions with neighboring cultures, such as those of Central Asia, Siberia, and Southeast Asia

Northern vs southern traditions

• The northern regions of China, including the Yellow River valley and the Loess Plateau, were the heartland of the Shang and Zhou dynasties and the center of the oracle bone divination tradition
• The southern regions, including the Yangtze River valley and the coastal areas, developed distinct traditions of shamanism and divination, often associated with the worship of natural spirits and the use of jade and other materials in ritual practices
• The differences between northern and southern traditions may reflect differences in subsistence practices, social organization, and cultural contact with neighboring societies, as well as ecological and environmental factors

Interactions with neighboring cultures

• Ancient China was not an isolated civilization, but was part of a broader network of cultural exchanges and interactions with neighboring societies in Central Asia, Siberia, and Southeast Asia
• These interactions may have influenced the development and evolution of shamanic and divinatory practices in ancient China, as well as the spread of Chinese practices and beliefs to neighboring regions
• For example, the use of bronze drums in Southeast Asian shamanic rituals may have been influenced by contact with southern Chinese cultures, while the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Roads may have introduced new forms of divination and meditation to China

Transmission along trade routes and frontiers

• The spread of shamanic and divinatory practices along trade routes and frontiers, such as the Silk Roads and the maritime routes of the South China Sea, facilitated cultural exchanges and interactions between ancient China and neighboring societies
• Merchants, diplomats, and other travelers may have served as agents of cultural transmission, bringing new ideas, practices, and material culture to China and spreading Chinese practices and beliefs to other regions
• The frontier regions of ancient China, such as the steppe lands of Inner Asia and the mountainous areas of the southwest, may have been particularly important zones of cultural exchange and interaction, where shamanic and divinatory practices from different cultures came into contact and influenced each other