1.4 Neolithic settlements and villages

Neolithic settlements in ancient China marked a shift from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to sedentary agricultural communities. This transition, occurring around 8,000-6,000 BCE, brought about significant changes in social structures, technology, and subsistence strategies.

These settlements varied in size and layout, featuring residential structures, storage facilities, and communal spaces. They relied on domesticated plants and animals, supplemented by hunting and gathering. The development of pottery, stone tools, and textiles further shaped Neolithic life and culture.

Neolithic settlements overview

• Neolithic settlements in ancient China represent a significant shift from earlier Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies to more sedentary agricultural communities
• These settlements emerged around 8,000-6,000 BCE and were characterized by the development of agriculture, pottery, and more complex social structures
• Studying Neolithic settlements provides insights into the foundations of Chinese civilization and the emergence of early states

Characteristics of Neolithic villages

Village size and layout

• Neolithic villages varied in size, ranging from small hamlets of a few dozen individuals to larger settlements with hundreds of inhabitants
• Villages were often situated near rivers, lakes, or other water sources to ensure access to water for agriculture and daily needs
• The layout of villages typically included residential structures, storage facilities, and communal spaces for social and ritual activities
• Some villages had defensive features such as walls or moats to protect against external threats

Residential structures

• Neolithic residential structures were primarily semi-subterranean pit houses, partially dug into the ground with a wooden or thatched roof
• These houses were usually circular or square in shape and could accommodate a single family or multiple generations
• The interior of the houses often included a central hearth for cooking and heating, as well as storage pits for food and other supplies
• Some settlements also had above-ground structures, such as raised platforms or stilt houses, particularly in areas prone to flooding

Community and public spaces

• Neolithic villages often included communal spaces for social interaction, ritual activities, and economic exchange
• These spaces could include open plazas, ceremonial platforms, or designated areas for craft production and trade
• Public buildings, such as ancestral halls or religious shrines, served as focal points for community gatherings and rituals
• The presence of these shared spaces suggests a growing sense of community identity and social cohesion within Neolithic villages

Subsistence strategies

Domesticated plants and animals

• Neolithic communities in China relied heavily on domesticated plants, particularly rice in the south and millet in the north
• Other important crops included soybeans, wheat, and root vegetables such as taro and yams
• Animal domestication, including pigs, dogs, and chickens, provided additional sources of food and raw materials
• The development of agriculture allowed for more stable food production and supported population growth

Hunting and gathering

• Despite the adoption of agriculture, Neolithic communities continued to supplement their diet with wild resources
• Hunting of deer, boar, and other animals provided meat and raw materials for tools and clothing
• Gathering of wild plants, fruits, and nuts remained an important part of the subsistence strategy
• The balance between agriculture and foraging varied depending on the local environment and cultural traditions

Storage methods

• Neolithic communities developed various methods for storing food to ensure a stable supply throughout the year
• Storage pits, lined with clay or other materials, were used to preserve grain, nuts, and other dry goods
• Ceramic vessels, such as jars and urns, were used to store liquids, such as water, oil, and fermented beverages
• The ability to store surplus food allowed for greater food security and supported population growth

Social organization

Egalitarian vs hierarchical structures

• Early Neolithic communities were likely characterized by relatively egalitarian social structures, with little evidence of pronounced social stratification
• Over time, some Neolithic societies developed more hierarchical structures, with the emergence of social ranking and leadership positions
• This shift may have been driven by factors such as population growth, resource control, and the need for coordination of labor and defense

Division of labor

• Neolithic communities exhibited a division of labor based on factors such as age, gender, and skill
• Women likely played a significant role in agriculture, food preparation, and textile production
• Men may have focused on hunting, fishing, and the production of tools and weapons
• Specialized crafts, such as pottery making and stone tool production, may have been the domain of skilled individuals or families

Kinship and family structures

• Kinship and family ties were central to the social organization of Neolithic communities
• Extended family households, comprising multiple generations, were common in many settlements
• Marriage alliances between families and lineages helped to forge social and economic ties within and between communities
• Ancestor worship and the veneration of lineage founders may have served to reinforce kinship bonds and social cohesion

Neolithic technologies

Pottery and ceramics

• Neolithic communities in China are known for their sophisticated pottery and ceramic traditions
• Early pottery was primarily utilitarian, used for cooking, storage, and serving food and beverages
• Over time, pottery became more elaborate, with the development of distinctive regional styles and decorative techniques (cord-marking, incising, and painting)
• The invention of the potter's wheel, around 4,500 BCE, revolutionized ceramic production and enabled the creation of more standardized and refined vessels

Stone tool production

• Neolithic communities relied on a wide range of stone tools for agriculture, hunting, and crafting
• Polished stone axes and adzes were used for land clearance, woodworking, and other heavy-duty tasks
• Microblades, produced from high-quality materials such as obsidian and chert, were used for precision cutting and harvesting
• Ground stone tools, such as mortars and pestles, were used for food processing and the preparation of medicines and pigments

Textile and basketry

• Neolithic communities developed sophisticated textile and basketry traditions using plant fibers and animal wool
• Basketry techniques, such as coiling and twining, were used to create containers, mats, and other utilitarian objects
• The invention of the loom, around 4,000 BCE, enabled the production of more complex woven textiles, including silk
• Textiles played important roles in clothing, bedding, and ritual contexts, and may have served as markers of social status and identity

Regional variations

Yellow River valley settlements

• The Yellow River valley, in northern China, was a major center of Neolithic settlement and cultural development
• Key Neolithic cultures in this region include the Yangshao (5,000-3,000 BCE) and Longshan (3,000-2,000 BCE) cultures
• Yellow River valley settlements are characterized by their distinctive painted pottery, large-scale public works (city walls and moats), and evidence of social stratification

Yangtze River valley settlements

• The Yangtze River valley, in southern China, was another important region of Neolithic settlement
• Key Neolithic cultures in this region include the Hemudu (5,000-4,000 BCE) and Liangzhu (3,300-2,300 BCE) cultures
• Yangtze River valley settlements are known for their sophisticated rice agriculture, elaborate jade carvings, and the development of complex hydraulic systems

Coastal and inland differences

• Neolithic settlements in coastal regions, such as the Shandong peninsula and the Fujian coast, often relied on a combination of agriculture and marine resources
• Coastal settlements are characterized by their distinctive shell middens, reflecting the importance of shellfish in the local diet
• Inland settlements, particularly those in mountainous or arid regions, adapted their subsistence strategies to the local environment
• Differences in resource availability and cultural traditions contributed to the development of regional variations in Neolithic material culture and social organization

Transition to early states

Population growth and density

• Over the course of the Neolithic period, population growth and increasing settlement density set the stage for the emergence of early states
• Higher population densities required more complex forms of social organization and resource management
• The need to coordinate labor, defend resources, and maintain social order may have driven the development of more hierarchical political structures

Emergence of social complexity

• The Neolithic period saw the gradual emergence of social complexity, with evidence of social stratification, craft specialization, and long-distance trade
• Prestige goods, such as jade ornaments and finely crafted pottery, served as markers of social status and may have been used in gift exchange and alliance building
• The control of key resources, such as prime agricultural land or sources of raw materials, may have contributed to the rise of elite groups and incipient political authority

Development of urban centers

• By the late Neolithic period, some settlements had grown into large, densely populated urban centers with complex internal organization
• These early cities, such as Liangzhu in the Yangtze River valley and Taosi in the Yellow River valley, had populations in the thousands and covered areas of several square kilometers
• Urban centers served as political, economic, and religious hubs, with evidence of palaces, temples, and specialized craft production
• The emergence of these early cities laid the foundation for the development of the first dynastic states in ancient China, such as the Xia and Shang dynasties