3.4 Egyptian religion and mythology
9 min read•august 20, 2024
Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of beliefs that evolved over thousands of years. It centered around a pantheon of gods and goddesses, each with specific roles and domains. The pharaoh was considered a living god, responsible for maintaining cosmic order.
Egyptian religious practices included temple rituals, offerings to deities, and elaborate funerary customs. Belief in the afterlife was central, with and tomb preparation ensuring eternal life. This rich religious tradition shaped every aspect of ancient Egyptian society and culture.
Origins of Egyptian religion
- Egyptian religion developed from prehistoric beliefs and practices of the Nile Valley peoples, evolving over thousands of years into a complex system of deities, myths, and rituals
- Early Egyptians likely worshipped local gods and spirits associated with natural features like the Nile River, animals, and celestial bodies, which later merged into the pantheon of gods
- The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under one ruler around 3100 BCE led to a more standardized religious system, though regional variations persisted
Role of gods and goddesses
Major deities and their roles
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- (or Re), the sun god, was one of the most important deities, associated with creation, kingship, and the daily cycle of the sun
- , god of the underworld and resurrection, played a central role in afterlife beliefs and was often depicted as a mummified king
- , wife of Osiris and mother of , was a powerful goddess of magic, motherhood, and protection
- Horus, the falcon-headed god, represented the living pharaoh and was associated with kingship, the sky, and protection against chaos
- , the jackal-headed god, was the guardian of the dead and embalming, guiding souls through the underworld
Lesser known gods and their significance
- , the ibis-headed god of wisdom and writing, was believed to have invented hieroglyphs and acted as a scribe in the underworld judgment
- , the creator god of Memphis, was associated with artisans, craftsmen, and the creation of the world through thought and speech
- , the lion-headed goddess of war and destruction, was also a protector against disease and chaos
- , a dwarf god, was a popular household deity who protected women in childbirth and warded off evil spirits
- , the hippopotamus goddess, was another protector of women and children, especially during pregnancy and childbirth
Mythology and creation stories
Heliopolis creation myth
- The Heliopolitan centered on the god Atum, who emerged from the primordial waters () and created the first divine couple, Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture)
- Shu and Tefnut gave birth to Geb (earth) and Nut (sky), who in turn produced Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Nephthys
- Atum was also associated with Ra, the sun god, and the two were often merged into the deity Ra-Atum
Memphis creation myth
- The Memphite creation myth focused on the god Ptah, who was believed to have created the world through the power of thought and speech
- Ptah was said to have conceived the world in his heart (mind) and brought it into existence by speaking the words
- This creation story emphasized the importance of the spoken word and the role of the creator god as a divine artisan
Other regional variations
- Different cities and regions had their own local creation myths and deities, such as the Elephantine creation myth involving the god Khnum
- The Ogdoad of Hermopolis featured four pairs of primordial gods representing the elements of creation (water, infinity, darkness, and hiddenness)
- The Theban creation myth centered on the god Amun, who was often merged with Ra to form Amun-Ra, the supreme creator god
Concept of divine kingship
Pharaoh as living god
- The pharaoh was believed to be a living god on earth, an incarnation of Horus during life and Osiris after death
- As a divine ruler, the pharaoh was responsible for maintaining maat (cosmic order, truth, and justice) and ensuring the stability of the kingdom
- The pharaoh's divine status legitimized his rule and gave him authority over religious, political, and social spheres
Role in maintaining cosmic order
- The pharaoh performed daily rituals in temples to honor the gods and maintain maat, such as offering food, drink, and other gifts
- By upholding maat, the pharaoh ensured the continuation of the natural cycles (Nile flooding, agricultural fertility) and the prosperity of the kingdom
- The pharaoh also played a crucial role in religious festivals and ceremonies, such as the Sed festival, which renewed his divine power and rejuvenated the land
Afterlife beliefs and practices
Importance of preserving the body
- Egyptians believed that preserving the physical body was essential for the soul's survival in the afterlife
- Mummification was practiced to prevent decay and ensure the body's integrity, allowing the deceased to live eternally in the underworld
- The mummification process involved removing internal organs, drying the body with natron salt, and wrapping it in linen bandages
Judgment of the dead
- In the underworld, the deceased faced the Weighing of the Heart ceremony, where their heart was weighed against the feather of maat (truth and justice)
- If the heart was lighter than the feather, the deceased was deemed worthy and allowed to enter the afterlife; if heavier, the heart was devoured by the monster Ammit, and the person ceased to exist
- The god Thoth recorded the results of the judgment, while Osiris presided over the ceremony as the ruler of the underworld
Afterlife realms and journeys
- The ancient Egyptians envisioned the afterlife as a journey through various realms and gates, as described in funerary texts like the
- The deceased had to navigate the underworld, facing challenges and obstacles, before reaching the Field of Reeds, a paradise resembling the living world
- The sun god Ra's nightly journey through the underworld, battling the serpent Apophis, was seen as a metaphor for the soul's journey and rebirth
Temples and cult centers
Architecture and layout of temples
- Egyptian temples were designed as houses for the gods, with a series of enclosed spaces leading from public areas to the innermost sanctuary
- The temple layout typically included a pylon (gateway), open courtyard, hypostyle hall with columns, and the sanctuary containing the god's statue
- Temples were aligned with astronomical events and adorned with reliefs and inscriptions depicting religious scenes, myths, and the pharaoh's divine role
Daily rituals and offerings
- Priests performed daily rituals in temples to care for the resident deity, treating the god's statue as a living entity
- These rituals included washing, dressing, and offering food to the statue, as well as reciting prayers and incantations
- Offerings, such as bread, beer, meat, and flowers, were presented to the deity and then redistributed among the temple staff and the elite
Major cult centers and their deities
- Heliopolis, dedicated to the sun god Ra-Atum, was one of the most important cult centers and the site of the influential creation myth
- Thebes, home to the Karnak and Luxor temple complexes, was a major center for the worship of Amun-Ra, particularly during the New Kingdom
- Memphis, the capital of the Old Kingdom, was the cult center of Ptah and the site of the Memphite creation myth
- Abydos was a significant center for the worship of Osiris, with an annual festival reenacting his mythical death and resurrection
Religious festivals and celebrations
Annual flooding of the Nile
- The annual inundation of the Nile was a crucial event for Egyptian agriculture and was celebrated as a gift from the gods
- The New Year's festival, known as Wepet Renpet, coincided with the beginning of the Nile flooding and symbolized the renewal of life and fertility
- Rituals and offerings were performed to ensure a successful flood and abundant harvest
New Year's festival
- The New Year's festival marked the beginning of the Egyptian calendar and the Nile flooding season
- It was a time of renewal, regeneration, and the reaffirmation of the pharaoh's divine rule
- The festival involved rituals, processions, and offerings to deities associated with creation and fertility, such as Ra, Osiris, and Hathor
Other major festivals and their significance
- The , held in Thebes, celebrated the link between the pharaoh and the god Amun-Ra, with the pharaoh's divine power being renewed
- The Festival of the Valley, also in Thebes, honored deceased ancestors and involved processions to the necropolises on the west bank of the Nile
- The Sed Festival, held after a pharaoh had ruled for 30 years and then every three years after, renewed the king's divine power and rejuvenated the land
- The Festival of Sokar, in Memphis, commemorated the god Ptah-Sokar's role in the creation and regeneration of the world
Magic and ritual practices
Protective amulets and spells
- Amulets were widely used in ancient Egypt for protection, healing, and bringing good luck
- Common amulets included the (protection and healing), the (life and regeneration), and the beetle (rebirth and transformation)
- Magical spells were inscribed on papyri, amulets, and tomb walls to protect the living and the dead from harm and to ensure a successful afterlife journey
Funerary rituals and texts
- Funerary rituals, such as the , were performed to reanimate the deceased's senses and ensure their ability to eat, drink, and speak in the afterlife
- Funerary texts, like the , , and the Book of the Dead, contained spells and incantations to guide and protect the deceased in the underworld
- These texts were inscribed on tomb walls, coffins, and papyri placed within the burial to ensure the deceased's successful journey and eternal life
Execration rituals and curses
- Execration rituals involved magically destroying objects or figurines representing enemies, either to prevent potential threats or to harm those who had already caused offense
- These rituals often included breaking pots or figurines, burning them, and burying or discarding the remains to symbolically destroy the enemy
- Curses were also used to protect tombs and funerary goods from potential robbers or vandals, invoking the wrath of the gods and the deceased upon those who disturbed the burial
Evolution of religion over time
Old Kingdom vs New Kingdom beliefs
- During the Old Kingdom, the sun god Ra and the Heliopolis creation myth were central to Egyptian religion, with the pharaoh seen as the embodiment of Horus
- In the New Kingdom, Amun-Ra became the supreme deity, and the Osiris myth gained prominence, emphasizing the importance of the afterlife and the pharaoh's role as a living god
- New Kingdom religious practices also incorporated more personal piety, with individuals seeking a direct relationship with the gods
Influence of foreign cults and deities
- As Egypt expanded its borders and engaged in trade, foreign deities and religious practices were incorporated into the Egyptian pantheon
- The goddess Hathor, associated with love, beauty, and fertility, was linked to the Semitic goddess Astarte and the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar
- The god Bes, a protector of households and childbirth, may have originated from Nubia or the Near East
Akhenaten's religious reforms and aftermath
- During the New Kingdom, Pharaoh (Amenhotep IV) introduced a monotheistic reform, elevating the sun disk Aten as the sole deity and suppressing the worship of other gods
- Akhenaten moved the capital to a new city, Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), and promoted a new artistic style emphasizing the royal family and the Aten
- After Akhenaten's death, his successor Tutankhamun restored the traditional polytheistic religion and moved the capital back to Thebes, marking a return to orthodox beliefs
Legacy and influence
Impact on later Egyptian culture
- Ancient Egyptian religion and its iconography continued to influence Egyptian culture throughout the Ptolemaic and Roman periods
- The cult of Isis spread beyond Egypt and gained popularity in the Greco-Roman world, with temples dedicated to her in many Mediterranean cities
- Egyptian religious motifs and deities were incorporated into Hellenistic and Roman art, architecture, and religious practices
Influence on Greek and Roman religion
- Greek and Roman authors, such as Herodotus and Plutarch, wrote about Egyptian religion and mythology, often comparing and contrasting it with their own beliefs
- The Ptolemaic period saw a syncretic blending of Greek and Egyptian deities, such as the god Serapis, who combined aspects of Osiris and Apis with Greek deities like Zeus and Hades
- The Isis cult's mystery rites and promise of salvation in the afterlife attracted many followers in the Roman Empire, including nobles and emperors
Modern understanding and interpretation
- The decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs by Jean-François Champollion in the early 19th century greatly advanced the modern understanding of ancient Egyptian religion and culture
- Archaeological discoveries, such as the tombs in the Valley of the Kings and the Rosetta Stone, have provided invaluable insights into Egyptian religious practices and beliefs
- Modern scholars continue to study and interpret ancient Egyptian religion, exploring its complex symbolism, mythological narratives, and sociocultural significance, while also recognizing the challenges of understanding an ancient belief system through the lens of modern perspectives
Key Terms to Review (29)
Akhenaten: Akhenaten was an ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, known for his radical departure from traditional polytheistic beliefs and the establishment of a monotheistic worship centered around the sun disk Aten. His reign marked a significant transformation in Egyptian religion and culture, influencing various aspects of society, including art and architecture, during the New Kingdom period.
Ankh: The ankh is an ancient Egyptian symbol resembling a cross with a loop at the top, representing life and immortality. This iconic emblem was closely linked to the concepts of divine protection and eternal life in Egyptian religion and mythology, often seen in art as being held by gods and pharaohs to signify their power over life and death.
Anubis: Anubis is the ancient Egyptian god associated with mummification and the afterlife, often depicted as a canine or a human figure with a jackal head. He played a crucial role in Egyptian religion, overseeing the embalming process and guiding souls to the afterlife, embodying the importance of funerary practices and beliefs about life after death.
Bes: Bes is a prominent deity in ancient Egyptian religion, often depicted as a dwarf with a lion-like face, known for his protective qualities and association with household joy and fertility. He played a vital role in warding off evil spirits and providing comfort to individuals, especially women during childbirth and children. The unique appearance and characteristics of Bes made him a beloved figure, representing joy, music, and the home.
Book of the Dead: The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text containing spells, prayers, and incantations meant to guide the deceased through the afterlife and ensure their safe passage into the realm of the dead. This text reflects the beliefs surrounding death and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian culture, revealing important aspects of their religion and mythology, as well as influencing their art and architectural practices.
Coffin Texts: Coffin Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts written in hieratic script, which were inscribed on coffins during the Middle Kingdom period. These texts served as spells, prayers, and incantations intended to aid the deceased in navigating the afterlife, reflecting key beliefs about death, resurrection, and the journey of the soul. They represent a significant evolution in Egyptian religion and mythology, moving from the more exclusive Pyramid Texts to a broader accessibility for individuals beyond royalty.
Creation myth: A creation myth is a symbolic narrative that explains the origin of the universe, humanity, and the elements of nature, often involving gods or supernatural beings. In the context of Egyptian religion and mythology, these myths serve as foundational stories that convey cultural beliefs, values, and the relationship between humans and the divine.
Duat: The duat is the ancient Egyptian underworld where souls journey after death. It is depicted as a complex realm filled with challenges, deities, and mystical landscapes that the deceased must navigate in order to achieve immortality. The concept of duat is central to Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife, emphasizing the importance of proper burial practices and the judgment of the soul.
Eye of Horus: The Eye of Horus is an ancient Egyptian symbol representing protection, royal power, and good health. Often depicted as a human eye with distinctive markings, this symbol is deeply rooted in Egyptian religion and mythology, reflecting the narrative of Horus, the sky god who avenged his father's murder by his uncle Set. The Eye of Horus is not only an emblem of divinity but also features prominently in Egyptian art and architecture, where it was commonly used in funerary contexts and amulets to ensure safe passage to the afterlife.
Hatshepsut: Hatshepsut was one of the few female pharaohs of ancient Egypt, ruling during the New Kingdom, specifically the 18th Dynasty, from around 1479 to 1458 BCE. She is known for her remarkable reign characterized by extensive building projects, prosperous trade networks, and a strong focus on religion and legitimacy. As a female leader in a male-dominated society, she adopted many masculine titles and symbols of power to solidify her authority.
Horus: Horus is one of the most significant deities in ancient Egyptian religion, typically depicted as a falcon or as a man with a falcon's head. He represents kingship, the sky, and protection, often associated with the pharaohs of Egypt, who were seen as the living embodiment of Horus. The mythology surrounding Horus illustrates themes of struggle, resurrection, and justice, making him a central figure in Egyptian mythology and a symbol of divine kingship.
Isis: Isis is an ancient Egyptian goddess worshipped as the ideal mother and wife, as well as the goddess of magic and healing. She was a central figure in Egyptian religion and mythology, known for her powerful role in the resurrection of Osiris and her protective nature towards the pharaohs. Her worship spread beyond Egypt, influencing various cultures and contributing to the development of mystery cults in the ancient Mediterranean.
Judgment of the Dead: The Judgment of the Dead is a crucial concept in ancient Egyptian religion, referring to the process by which the deceased are evaluated to determine their fate in the afterlife. This event, often depicted in funerary texts and art, involves the weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma'at, the goddess of truth and justice, signifying moral integrity. The outcome of this judgment dictated whether the soul would be granted eternal life or face annihilation, underscoring the Egyptians' beliefs about morality, justice, and the afterlife.
Ma'at: Ma'at is the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, harmony, law, morality, and justice. It represents the ideal state of the universe and the moral integrity that individuals and society must strive for to maintain cosmic order. The importance of ma'at permeates various aspects of ancient Egyptian life, influencing their religion and mythology, social structure during the Middle Kingdom, cultural expressions in art, and the architecture of monumental structures.
Mummification: Mummification is the ancient Egyptian practice of preserving a body after death to prepare it for the afterlife. This complex process involved removing internal organs, treating the body with preservatives like natron, and wrapping it in linen, reflecting deep religious beliefs about immortality and the significance of the afterlife in Egyptian culture. The care taken during mummification reveals the Egyptians’ views on life, death, and their gods, particularly in the context of the New Kingdom.
Nun: Nun is a primordial deity in ancient Egyptian mythology, representing the chaotic waters of creation. In the context of Egyptian religion, Nun embodies the concept of the primordial abyss from which all life emerges, signifying the beginning of existence before the formation of the world. As such, Nun plays a vital role in creation myths, illustrating the transition from chaos to order, and is often depicted as a dark, watery mass or as a figure with water flowing from him.
Offering table: An offering table is a structure used in ancient Egyptian religious practices to present food, drink, and other goods as offerings to the gods or the deceased. These tables were often placed in temples or tombs and served as focal points for rituals aimed at ensuring favor from the divine or providing sustenance for the afterlife. The significance of offering tables is deeply rooted in the belief systems surrounding death and the afterlife, where offerings were believed to support both living and deceased souls.
Opening of the Mouth Ceremony: The Opening of the Mouth Ceremony was an ancient Egyptian ritual performed to ensure that the deceased could breathe, speak, and eat in the afterlife. This important rite was believed to reanimate the dead, allowing them to interact with the divine and partake in offerings made by the living. The ceremony involved various symbolic acts, often including the use of a special tool called a 'wadi' to symbolically open the mouth of the deceased, thereby restoring their senses for their journey in the afterlife.
Opet Festival: The Opet Festival was an ancient Egyptian religious celebration held annually in Thebes to honor the god Amun and his consort Mut, showcasing the connection between the divine and the pharaoh. This festival involved a grand procession that included the transport of statues of the deities from Karnak Temple to Luxor Temple, reinforcing the idea of the pharaoh's divine rule and connection to the gods.
Osiris: Osiris is an ancient Egyptian god associated with the afterlife, resurrection, and agriculture. He is often depicted as a green-skinned figure, symbolizing rebirth and fertility, and is known for his role as the ruler of the underworld. Osiris is central to Egyptian religion and mythology, illustrating themes of death and resurrection, which reflect the agricultural cycles and beliefs in the afterlife.
Ptah: Ptah is an ancient Egyptian god, primarily worshiped in Memphis, known as the creator deity and god of craftsmanship. He is often depicted as a mummified figure holding a scepter, symbolizing stability and power, and is associated with creation, architecture, and the arts. Ptah was central to Egyptian religion, embodying the creative forces of the universe and playing a vital role in the mythology surrounding the creation of the world.
Pyramid Texts: Pyramid Texts are a collection of ancient Egyptian religious writings, inscribed on the walls of pyramids, primarily from the Old Kingdom period. They serve as some of the earliest known religious texts in history, aimed at ensuring the deceased's safe passage to the afterlife and their continued existence in the realm of the gods. These texts highlight the beliefs and practices surrounding death, resurrection, and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian religion and mythology, particularly during the construction of monumental tombs like pyramids.
Ra: Ra is the ancient Egyptian sun god, often considered the most important deity in Egyptian religion. He symbolizes creation, light, and warmth, and was believed to sail across the sky in a solar boat during the day and travel through the underworld at night. Ra's prominence reflects the Egyptians' reverence for the sun as a source of life and energy, which connects deeply to their understanding of the cosmos and the cycle of life and death.
Scarab: A scarab is a type of beetle, particularly the scarabaeidae family, that holds significant symbolism in ancient Egyptian culture, especially in relation to religion and mythology. Scarabs were associated with the sun god Ra and represented regeneration and transformation, often seen as a symbol of resurrection due to their connection with the cyclical nature of life and death. This connection made them important in funerary practices, where they were commonly used in amulets and tomb decorations.
Sekhmet: Sekhmet is an ancient Egyptian goddess often depicted as a lioness or a woman with a lioness head, representing war, destruction, and healing. She was believed to be the fierce protector of the pharaoh and the goddess of the sun's heat, particularly linked to the destructive aspect of the sun. Sekhmet's dual nature symbolizes both the chaos of warfare and the ability to heal, showcasing the complexities of Egyptian mythology and religion.
Taweret: Taweret is an ancient Egyptian goddess depicted as a pregnant hippopotamus, often associated with childbirth, fertility, and protection of women and children. She plays a vital role in Egyptian religion and mythology as a fierce guardian of pregnant women and newborns, embodying the nurturing aspects of motherhood while also representing the dangers that could threaten them.
Temple cult: A temple cult refers to the religious practices and rituals centered around a temple, often dedicated to a specific deity or deities, where worshippers engaged in various ceremonies, offerings, and sacrifices. In ancient cultures, especially within Egyptian religion and mythology, temple cults played a vital role in maintaining the favor of gods, ensuring cosmic order, and fulfilling societal and religious obligations.
Thoth: Thoth is the ancient Egyptian god of writing, knowledge, and wisdom, often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon. He played a crucial role in Egyptian mythology as the scribe of the gods and the inventor of hieroglyphics, linking him to communication and the recording of history. Thoth is also associated with the moon and is believed to regulate time and maintain balance in the universe.
Wepet-renpet: Wept-renpet, often translated as 'the first time' or 'the new year,' refers to the Egyptian festival marking the annual inundation of the Nile and the beginning of the agricultural cycle. This festival was closely tied to both the agricultural calendar and religious practices, celebrating rebirth and renewal, and highlighting the deep connections between nature, agriculture, and spirituality in ancient Egyptian culture.