🧊People of the Arctic Unit 9 – Arctic Research and Science

Arctic Geography and Climate

• Arctic region encompasses areas north of the Arctic Circle (66.5°N latitude) including the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Greenland, Russia, Alaska, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland
• Characterized by extreme cold temperatures, with average winter temperatures ranging from -40°C to -50°C (-40°F to -58°F) and summer temperatures rarely exceeding 10°C (50°F)
  • Lowest recorded temperature in the Arctic: -68°C (-90°F) in Oymyakon, Russia
• Receives minimal precipitation, typically less than 250 mm (10 inches) annually, making it a polar desert
• Experiences extended periods of darkness during the polar night (up to 24 hours in the far north) and continuous daylight during the midnight sun
• Unique features include permafrost (permanently frozen ground), glaciers, and sea ice
  • Permafrost covers approximately 24% of the exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere
• Tundra biome dominates the Arctic landscape, characterized by low-growing vegetation adapted to the harsh conditions (lichens, mosses, sedges, and dwarf shrubs)
• Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceans, covering approximately 14 million square kilometers (5.4 million square miles)

Indigenous Peoples and Cultures

• Arctic is home to diverse Indigenous communities, including Inuit (Canada and Greenland), Sámi (Fennoscandia), Aleut and Yupik (Alaska and Russia), and various other groups in Russia (Chukchi, Evenk, and Nenets)
• Traditional livelihoods revolve around hunting, fishing, reindeer herding, and gathering, adapted to the harsh Arctic environment
  • Inuit rely on hunting marine mammals (seals, walruses, and whales) and caribou
  • Sámi have a strong tradition of reindeer herding and fishing
• Indigenous knowledge systems, passed down through generations, provide valuable insights into the Arctic environment, wildlife, and sustainable resource management
• Traditional art forms, such as Inuit soapstone carving and Sámi duodji (handicrafts), reflect the deep connection between Indigenous peoples and their environment
• Colonization and forced assimilation policies have had lasting impacts on Indigenous communities, leading to loss of language, culture, and traditional practices
  • Residential school systems in Canada and Alaska aimed to erase Indigenous identities
• Indigenous rights movements have gained momentum, with the establishment of self-governing bodies (Inuit Circumpolar Council) and land claims agreements (Nunavut in Canada)

Historical Arctic Exploration

• Early Arctic exploration driven by the search for the Northwest Passage, a potential trade route connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
  • 16th-century expeditions led by explorers such as Martin Frobisher and Henry Hudson
• 19th-century expeditions focused on reaching the North Pole and mapping the Arctic coastline
  • British Royal Navy officer William Edward Parry's expeditions (1819-1825) reached 82°45′N, setting a new record for the farthest north
  • Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen's Fram expedition (1893-1896) intentionally froze his ship in the pack ice, hoping to drift to the North Pole
• Tragic expeditions, such as the Franklin expedition (1845-1848), highlighted the dangers of Arctic exploration
  • All 129 crew members perished, likely due to a combination of factors (scurvy, lead poisoning, and starvation)
• Roald Amundsen's successful navigation of the Northwest Passage (1903-1906) and Robert Peary's disputed claim of reaching the North Pole (1909) marked significant milestones in Arctic exploration
• Soviet and American military presence in the Arctic during the Cold War led to increased scientific research and infrastructure development
  • Establishment of the Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition (1948) and the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line (1950s)

Modern Arctic Research Methods

• Satellite remote sensing enables monitoring of sea ice extent, glacial melt, and changes in vegetation cover
  • NASA's ICESat-2 (Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite-2) uses laser altimetry to measure ice sheet elevation and sea ice thickness
• Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) allow for exploration and data collection beneath the sea ice
  • AUVs equipped with sensors (temperature, salinity, and oxygen) provide insights into Arctic Ocean circulation and marine ecosystems
• Ice core drilling and analysis reveal past climate conditions and atmospheric composition
  • Greenland Ice Core Project (GRIP) and Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (GISP2) have provided climate records spanning over 100,000 years
• Terrestrial and marine ecological studies assess the impacts of climate change on Arctic flora and fauna
  • Long-term monitoring projects, such as the Arctic Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) sites, track changes in tundra ecosystems
• Indigenous knowledge and community-based monitoring contribute valuable observations and insights into environmental changes
  • Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit (IQ) incorporates traditional knowledge into research and decision-making processes
• International research collaborations, such as the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC), facilitate knowledge sharing and coordinated research efforts

Environmental Challenges and Climate Change

• Arctic is warming at a rate two to three times faster than the global average, a phenomenon known as Arctic amplification
  • Driven by feedback loops, such as the ice-albedo feedback, where melting sea ice exposes darker ocean waters that absorb more solar radiation
• Sea ice extent and thickness have declined significantly in recent decades, with the Arctic Ocean projected to be largely ice-free during summer by mid-century
  • September sea ice extent has decreased by approximately 13% per decade since 1979
• Permafrost thaw releases greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) into the atmosphere, further amplifying global warming
  • Arctic permafrost stores an estimated 1,400-1,600 billion tonnes of organic carbon, twice the amount currently in the atmosphere
• Glacial melt and sea ice loss contribute to sea level rise, threatening coastal communities and infrastructure
  • Greenland Ice Sheet has lost an average of 279 billion tonnes of ice per year since 1992
• Changes in Arctic climate patterns affect global weather systems, potentially leading to more frequent and intense extreme weather events
  • Jet stream destabilization and increased moisture transport from the Arctic to mid-latitudes
• Ocean acidification, caused by increased absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide, poses risks to Arctic marine ecosystems and calcifying organisms (pteropods and cold-water corals)
• Contaminants, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, accumulate in the Arctic food web, posing health risks to wildlife and Indigenous communities
  • Arctic acts as a sink for contaminants transported from lower latitudes via atmospheric and oceanic currents

Arctic Ecosystems and Wildlife

• Arctic tundra supports a diverse array of flora and fauna adapted to the harsh conditions
  • Vegetation includes mosses, lichens, sedges, and dwarf shrubs (Arctic willow and bearberry)
  • Iconic wildlife species: polar bears, Arctic foxes, caribou, muskoxen, and migratory birds (snow geese and snowy owls)
• Marine ecosystems are characterized by the presence of sea ice, which serves as a critical habitat for many species
  • Algae that grow on the underside of sea ice form the base of the Arctic marine food web
  • Sea ice-dependent species include ringed seals, walruses, and polar bears
• Polynyas, areas of open water surrounded by sea ice, are hotspots of biological productivity and provide important feeding grounds for marine mammals and seabirds
  • North Water Polynya in Baffin Bay supports large populations of narwhals, belugas, and bowhead whales
• Migratory species, such as caribou and shorebirds, rely on the Arctic tundra for breeding and foraging during the summer months
  • Barren-ground caribou herds (Porcupine and Beverly) undertake long-distance migrations between their wintering grounds in the boreal forest and summer calving grounds on the tundra
• Climate change is altering Arctic ecosystems, with impacts on species distribution, phenology, and trophic interactions
  • Earlier spring snowmelt and green-up affect the timing of caribou calving and forage availability
  • Northward expansion of shrubs (shrubification) alters tundra habitat structure and ecosystem dynamics
• Conservation efforts aim to protect Arctic biodiversity and support the resilience of ecosystems in the face of climate change
  • Establishment of protected areas, such as the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska and the Northeast Greenland National Park

Resource Management and Sustainability

• Arctic is rich in natural resources, including oil, natural gas, minerals (gold, silver, and rare earth elements), and fisheries
  • Estimated 13% of the world's undiscovered oil and 30% of its undiscovered natural gas reserves are located in the Arctic
• Extractive industries have significant economic potential but also pose environmental risks and challenges for sustainable development
  • Oil spills, such as the Exxon Valdez incident in Alaska (1989), can have devastating impacts on Arctic ecosystems and communities
• Sustainable resource management practices aim to balance economic development with environmental protection and the rights of Indigenous peoples
  • Incorporation of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) into decision-making processes
  • Co-management agreements, such as the Inuvialuit Final Agreement in Canada, ensure Indigenous participation in resource management
• Renewable energy development, such as wind and hydropower, offers opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting energy independence in Arctic communities
  • Raglan Mine in Nunavik, Quebec, has installed a wind turbine and energy storage system to reduce diesel fuel consumption
• Sustainable tourism practices, such as small-scale ecotourism and cultural tourism, provide economic benefits to Arctic communities while minimizing environmental impacts
  • Visitor guidelines and codes of conduct, such as those developed by the Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO), promote responsible tourism practices
• Fisheries management in the Arctic aims to ensure the long-term sustainability of fish stocks and the livelihoods of coastal communities
  • Precautionary approach and ecosystem-based management strategies, as outlined in the Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean
• International cooperation and governance frameworks are essential for addressing transboundary resource management issues in the Arctic
  • Arctic Council working groups, such as the Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG), facilitate collaboration on sustainable resource management practices

Geopolitics and International Cooperation

• Arctic has gained increased geopolitical significance due to climate change, resource development potential, and new shipping routes
  • Retreat of sea ice has made the Northern Sea Route (along the Russian coast) and the Northwest Passage (through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago) more accessible for commercial shipping
• Arctic coastal states (Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Norway, Russia, and the United States) have competing territorial claims and interests in the region
  • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) provides a legal framework for resolving disputes and determining continental shelf boundaries
• Non-Arctic states, such as China, Japan, and South Korea, have also expressed interest in the Arctic, investing in research, resource development, and infrastructure projects
  • China's Arctic Policy (2018) outlines its vision for a "Polar Silk Road" as part of its Belt and Road Initiative
• Arctic Council, established in 1996, is the leading intergovernmental forum for promoting cooperation, coordination, and interaction among Arctic states, Indigenous communities, and other stakeholders
  • Eight member states: Canada, Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States
  • Six permanent participant organizations representing Arctic Indigenous peoples
• International agreements and treaties have been established to address specific issues in the Arctic
  • Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic (2011)
  • Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic (2013)
• Scientific cooperation and knowledge sharing are essential for understanding and addressing the complex challenges facing the Arctic
  • International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) facilitates and promotes international collaboration in Arctic research
  • Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks (SAON) aims to strengthen multinational engagement in pan-Arctic observing and data sharing
• Geopolitical tensions and competing interests in the Arctic have the potential to undermine international cooperation and stability in the region
  • Militarization and increased military exercises by Arctic states, particularly Russia and the United States
  • Importance of maintaining open dialogue, transparency, and adherence to international law to prevent conflict and ensure peaceful cooperation in the Arctic