🥼Organic Chemistry Unit 17 – Alcohols and Phenols

What Are Alcohols and Phenols?

• Alcohols are organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a saturated carbon atom
• Phenols are organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded directly to an aromatic ring
• Both alcohols and phenols are important classes of organic compounds with distinct properties and reactivity
• The presence of the hydroxyl group in alcohols and phenols makes them polar and capable of forming hydrogen bonds
• Alcohols and phenols are widely found in nature (ethanol in fermented beverages, phenol in coal tar) and have numerous industrial and biological applications
• The hydroxyl group in alcohols and phenols can act as both a hydrogen bond donor and acceptor, influencing their physical properties and interactions with other molecules
• Alcohols and phenols differ in their structure, with alcohols having the -OH group attached to a saturated carbon while phenols have it directly bonded to an aromatic ring

Structure and Classification

• Alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°), or tertiary (3°) based on the number of carbon atoms directly attached to the carbon bearing the hydroxyl group
  • Primary alcohols have the -OH group attached to a carbon atom that is bonded to one other carbon atom (methanol, ethanol)
  • Secondary alcohols have the -OH group attached to a carbon atom that is bonded to two other carbon atoms (isopropanol, 2-butanol)
  • Tertiary alcohols have the -OH group attached to a carbon atom that is bonded to three other carbon atoms (tert-butanol, 2-methyl-2-propanol)
• Phenols have the hydroxyl group directly attached to an aromatic ring, typically a benzene ring
• The aromatic ring in phenols can have various substituents, leading to different types of phenols (phenol, cresols, naphthols)
• The position of the hydroxyl group on the aromatic ring can affect the reactivity and properties of phenols (ortho-, meta-, para-substituted phenols)
• Alcohols can also be classified as monohydric (one -OH group), dihydric (two -OH groups), or polyhydric (multiple -OH groups) based on the number of hydroxyl groups present in the molecule
• The carbon chain length and the presence of other functional groups can further classify alcohols (ethanol, glycerol, benzyl alcohol)

Physical Properties

• Alcohols and phenols have higher boiling points compared to hydrocarbons of similar molecular weight due to the presence of hydrogen bonding
• The boiling point of alcohols increases with increasing carbon chain length and decreases with increased branching
• Alcohols and phenols are generally soluble in water due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
  • The solubility decreases with increasing carbon chain length as the hydrophobic nature of the alkyl group becomes more dominant
• Lower molecular weight alcohols (methanol, ethanol) are completely miscible with water, while higher alcohols have limited solubility
• Phenols are typically less soluble in water compared to alcohols due to the presence of the hydrophobic aromatic ring
• Alcohols and phenols are polar molecules, with the hydroxyl group being the polar region and the alkyl or aromatic group being the nonpolar region
• The polar nature of alcohols and phenols allows them to act as solvents for many polar compounds and ions

Chemical Reactions

• Alcohols and phenols undergo a variety of chemical reactions due to the presence of the reactive hydroxyl group
• Dehydration: Alcohols can be dehydrated to form alkenes by heating with a strong acid catalyst (ethanol → ethene + water)
• Oxidation: Alcohols can be oxidized to form aldehydes, ketones, or carboxylic acids, depending on the type of alcohol and the oxidizing agent used
  • Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes and further to carboxylic acids (ethanol → acetaldehyde → acetic acid)
  • Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones (isopropanol → acetone)
  • Tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation due to the absence of a hydrogen atom on the carbon bearing the -OH group
• Esterification: Alcohols react with carboxylic acids in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters (ethanol + acetic acid → ethyl acetate + water)
• Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions due to the electron-donating nature of the hydroxyl group
  • Bromination: Phenols react with bromine to form 2,4,6-tribromophenol (phenol + 3Br2 → 2,4,6-tribromophenol + 3HBr)
  • Nitration: Phenols react with concentrated nitric acid to form 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, also known as picric acid (phenol + 3HNO3 → 2,4,6-trinitrophenol + 3H2O)
• Phenols can also undergo Kolbe-Schmitt reaction, where they react with sodium hydroxide and carbon dioxide under pressure to form salicylic acid (phenol + NaOH + CO2 → sodium salicylate + H2O)

Synthesis Methods

• There are several methods for synthesizing alcohols and phenols, depending on the starting materials and desired product
• Hydration of Alkenes: Alkenes can be hydrated with water in the presence of an acid catalyst to form alcohols (ethene + H2O → ethanol)
  • Markovnikov's rule predicts the regioselectivity of the hydration, with the hydroxyl group adding to the more substituted carbon
• Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds: Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced using reducing agents like sodium borohydride (NaBH4) or lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4) to form primary and secondary alcohols, respectively (acetone + NaBH4 → isopropanol)
• Grignard Reaction: Grignard reagents (alkyl or aryl magnesium halides) react with aldehydes or ketones to form primary, secondary, or tertiary alcohols (phenylmagnesium bromide + formaldehyde → benzyl alcohol)
• Fermentation: Ethanol can be produced by the fermentation of sugars using yeast (glucose → ethanol + CO2)
• Cumene Process: Phenol is industrially synthesized via the Cumene process, which involves the alkylation of benzene with propylene to form cumene, followed by oxidation and acidic cleavage (benzene + propylene → cumene → phenol + acetone)
• Hydrolysis of Halogenated Compounds: Alkyl halides can be hydrolyzed with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form alcohols (bromoethane + NaOH → ethanol + NaBr)

Industrial Applications

• Alcohols and phenols have numerous industrial applications due to their unique properties and reactivity
• Ethanol is widely used as a solvent, fuel additive, and in the production of hand sanitizers and alcoholic beverages
• Methanol is used as a solvent, antifreeze agent, and in the production of biodiesel and other chemicals (formaldehyde, acetic acid)
• Isopropanol is used as a solvent, disinfectant, and in the production of acetone and other chemicals
• Glycerol (a trihydric alcohol) is used in the food, pharmaceutical, and personal care industries as a humectant, emollient, and sweetener
• Phenol is used in the production of plastics (Bakelite), nylon, synthetic fibers, and pharmaceuticals (aspirin)
• Bisphenol A (BPA), a diphenol, is used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins
• Cresols (methylphenols) are used as disinfectants, preservatives, and in the production of pesticides and synthetic resins
• Ethylene glycol (a dihydric alcohol) is used as an antifreeze agent, coolant, and in the production of polyester fibers and resins

Health and Environmental Impact

• Alcohols and phenols can have both positive and negative impacts on health and the environment
• Ethanol, when consumed in moderation, has been associated with potential health benefits (reduced risk of cardiovascular disease)
  • However, excessive alcohol consumption can lead to liver damage, addiction, and other health problems
• Methanol is toxic and can cause blindness or death if ingested, as it is metabolized to formic acid in the body
• Phenol and its derivatives can be corrosive and toxic, causing skin irritation, respiratory issues, and long-term health effects (cancer)
• Bisphenol A (BPA) has been a concern due to its potential endocrine-disrupting properties and its presence in food packaging materials
• The production and disposal of alcohols and phenols can have environmental impacts, such as air and water pollution
  • Proper handling, storage, and disposal of these chemicals are essential to minimize their environmental impact
• The use of biofuels, such as bioethanol, has been promoted as a more sustainable alternative to fossil fuels, as they are derived from renewable sources and can reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• The development of green chemistry principles has encouraged the use of safer and more environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional alcohols and phenols in industrial processes

Key Differences Between Alcohols and Phenols

• Alcohols and phenols differ in their structure, with alcohols having the hydroxyl group attached to a saturated carbon atom, while phenols have the hydroxyl group directly bonded to an aromatic ring
• The presence of the aromatic ring in phenols makes them more acidic than alcohols, as the negative charge on the phenoxide ion is stabilized by resonance
  • Phenols have a pKa range of 8-10, while alcohols have a pKa range of 16-18
• Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions (bromination, nitration) more readily than alcohols due to the electron-donating nature of the hydroxyl group and the stability of the aromatic ring
• Alcohols are more susceptible to oxidation reactions compared to phenols, as the hydroxyl group in phenols is directly attached to the aromatic ring, which is resistant to oxidation
• The solubility of alcohols in water is generally higher than that of phenols, as the presence of the hydrophobic aromatic ring in phenols reduces their water solubility
• Alcohols are more commonly used as solvents and fuel additives, while phenols are more often used in the production of plastics, resins, and pharmaceuticals
• The toxicity and environmental impact of phenols are generally higher than those of alcohols due to their corrosive nature and potential long-term health effects
• While alcohols can be readily synthesized by hydration of alkenes or reduction of carbonyl compounds, phenols are typically produced by the cumene process or other aromatic substitution reactions