4.3 Early Native American Poetry and Fiction
5 min read•july 30, 2024
Early Native American poetry and fiction marked a pivotal shift from oral traditions to written works. This transition, influenced by events like the and , led to a unique hybrid style blending traditional storytelling with Western forms.
Writers like , , and emerged as pioneers. Their works addressed themes of , , and , while incorporating and that would shape Native American literature for generations to come.
Emergence of Native American Literature
Transition from Oral Traditions to Written Works
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- Early Native American literature emerged from late 18th to early 20th century marked transition from oral traditions to written forms
- Indian Removal Act of 1830 and establishment of boarding schools impacted development of written literature
- Authors responded to cultural disruption and forced assimilation through their works
- Early works blended traditional storytelling with Western literary forms created unique hybrid style
- Reflected authors'
- Publication of works by Native authors in late 19th/early 20th centuries signified milestone (Charles Eastman's "Indian Boyhood", 1902)
- Anthropologists and ethnographers recorded and translated oral traditions
- Contributed to preservation and dissemination of early literary works
- Western education and literacy programs in Native communities played crucial role
- Facilitated development of written literature during this period
Historical and Cultural Influences
- Indian Removal Act of 1830 profoundly shaped early Native American literature
- Writers addressed themes of and
- Example: William Apess's "Indian Nullification" (1835) critiqued U.S. policies
- Establishment of boarding schools impacted literary development
- Many authors experienced forced assimilation firsthand
- Example: Zitkála-Šá's "The School Days of an Indian Girl" (1900) depicted boarding school experiences
- in late 19th century influenced literature
- Writers sought to preserve and celebrate Native traditions
- Example: Charles Eastman's "The Soul of the Indian" (1911) explored Native
- Increased interaction with Euro-American society shaped literary themes
- Authors grappled with issues of identity and cultural adaptation
- Example: John Rollin Ridge's novel "The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta" (1854) explored themes of cultural conflict
Prominent Native American Writers
Early Pioneers in Native American Literature
- William Apess (Pequot, 1798-1839) published autobiographical works
- "A Son of the Forest" (1829) detailed his life experiences
- "Indian Nullification of the Unconstitutional Laws of Massachusetts" (1835) addressed political issues
- Jane Johnston Schoolcraft (Ojibwe, 1800-1842) considered first known Native American literary writer
- Composed poetry in both English and Ojibwe languages
- Example: "To the Pine Tree" blended Ojibwe oral traditions with Western poetic forms
- John Rollin Ridge (Cherokee, 1827-1867) authored first novel by a Native American
- "The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murieta" (1854) blended historical events with fiction
- Novel explored themes of cultural conflict and identity
- Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins (Northern Paiute, 1844-1891) wrote important early nonfiction
- "Life Among the Piutes: Their Wrongs and Claims" (1883) documented Paiute history and culture
- Advocated for Native rights and land preservation
Influential Writers of the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
- Charles Alexander Eastman (Santee Dakota, 1858-1939) published numerous works
- "Indian Boyhood" (1902) provided autobiographical account of traditional Dakota childhood
- "The Soul of the Indian" (1911) offered insights into Native American spirituality
- Eastman's works bridged Native and non-Native cultures
- Zitkála-Šá (Yankton Dakota, 1876-1938) wrote poetry, short stories, and autobiographical works
- "American Indian Stories" (1921) critiqued impact of assimilation policies
- "Old Indian Legends" (1901) preserved traditional Dakota stories
- Zitkála-Šá's works addressed themes of cultural identity and resistance
- E. Pauline Johnson (Mohawk, 1861-1913) gained recognition as poet and performer
- Published collections including "The White Wampum" (1895) and "Flint and Feather" (1912)
- Performances blended traditional Mohawk elements with Western poetry recitation
- Johnson's work explored themes of dual heritage and Native pride
Themes and Techniques in Early Native American Literature
Prevalent Themes and Motifs
- Cultural identity explored complexities of Native American experience
- Writers grappled with effects of colonization and forced assimilation
- Example: Zitkála-Šá's "The School Days of an Indian Girl" depicted struggle to maintain cultural identity
- Loss and displacement featured prominently
- Authors addressed impact of land dispossession and cultural erosion
- Example: Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins's "Life Among the Piutes" documented loss of ancestral lands
- Resistance and survival emerged as central themes
- Writers celebrated resilience of Native communities
- Example: Charles Eastman's "From the Deep Woods to Civilization" (1916) highlighted personal journey of adaptation
- Nature and spirituality intertwined in many works
- Writers drew connections between land, culture, and spiritual beliefs
- Example: E. Pauline Johnson's poem "The Song My Paddle Sings" celebrated connection to natural world
Literary Techniques and Stylistic Elements
- Oral storytelling techniques incorporated into written works
- Repetition, circular narrative structures, and traditional songs/chants utilized
- Example: Zitkála-Šá's "Old Indian Legends" preserved oral storytelling patterns in written form
- Bicultural approach blended Indigenous traditions with Western literary forms
- Writers navigated between Native and Euro-American literary conventions
- Example: John Rollin Ridge's novel combined Western novel format with Cherokee storytelling elements
- drawn from nature and tribal mythologies
- Natural elements often served as metaphors for cultural and personal experiences
- Example: Jane Johnston Schoolcraft's poem "To the Pine Tree" used pine as symbol of endurance
- Code-switching between English and Indigenous languages employed
- Preserved linguistic heritage and conveyed cultural concepts
- Example: E. Pauline Johnson incorporated Mohawk words in English-language poetry
- elements incorporated
- Humor and irony used to critique social and political issues
- Example: William Apess's "Indian Nullification" employed satirical elements to challenge racist policies
- Autobiographical and semi- common
- Documented and preserved tribal histories and personal experiences
- Example: Charles Eastman's "Indian Boyhood" provided firsthand account of traditional Dakota life
Contributions of Early Native American Literature
Cultural Preservation and Representation
- Early works established foundation for future generations of Native writers
- Provided models for navigating complexities of Indigenous perspective within Western literary tradition
- Example: Zitkála-Šá's blending of Dakota oral traditions with Western short story form influenced later writers
- Literature challenged stereotypes and misrepresentations of Native Americans
- Offered authentic portrayals of Indigenous life and experiences
- Example: Charles Eastman's works countered popular "noble savage" stereotypes
- Preservation of tribal histories, languages, and cultural practices achieved
- Countered effects of assimilation policies and cultural suppression
- Example: Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins's "Life Among the Piutes" documented Northern Paiute customs and history
Literary and Social Impact
- Created space for Indigenous voices within broader American literary canon
- Paved way for greater recognition and study of Native American literature in academia
- Example: inclusion of William Apess's works in early American literature courses
- Distinct Native American literary aesthetic developed
- Bicultural approach influenced evolution of Native American writing style
- Example: Jane Johnston Schoolcraft's bilingual poetry established precedent for linguistic experimentation
- Literature served as form of cultural resistance and activism
- Addressed issues of sovereignty, land rights, and social justice
- Example: Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins's advocacy for Paiute land rights through her writing
- Increased opportunities for Native American writers, editors, and publishers
- Success of early authors contributed to growth of Native presence in literary world
- Example: establishment of first Native-owned publishing houses in early 20th century
Key Terms to Review (31)
Autobiographical narratives: Autobiographical narratives are personal accounts or stories written by individuals that reflect their life experiences, thoughts, and emotions. These narratives often serve to document one's identity, culture, and personal history, offering insights into the author's perspective. In the context of Native American literature, these narratives can reveal the complexities of cultural identity, historical trauma, and the relationship between the individual and their community.
Bicultural approaches: Bicultural approaches refer to the integration and coexistence of two distinct cultural identities, often characterized by the blending of indigenous and Western influences. This concept is significant in literature as it allows authors to express their experiences and perspectives shaped by both cultures, fostering a deeper understanding of identity and belonging.
Boarding schools: Boarding schools were institutions established primarily in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to educate Native American children while enforcing assimilation into Euro-American culture. These schools aimed to erase Indigenous identities and languages, often using harsh methods, and significantly impacted intergenerational experiences within Native families. The legacy of these institutions is crucial for understanding resistance narratives and the ongoing struggles for cultural survival.
Charles Eastman: Charles Eastman was a Dakota physician, author, and reformer who played a significant role in the early 20th century Native American cultural renaissance. He is best known for his writings that combined traditional Native American values with Western education, advocating for the rights and welfare of Indigenous peoples through both his literary contributions and his medical practice.
Cultural Identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular cultural group, shaped by shared customs, beliefs, language, and history. It plays a vital role in how individuals perceive themselves and their connection to their heritage, especially within the context of storytelling and artistic expressions.
Cultural loss: Cultural loss refers to the decline or disappearance of cultural practices, languages, traditions, and identities, often due to external pressures like colonization, globalization, or assimilation. This concept is significant in understanding the impact of historical events on Native communities, particularly how early narratives reflect the struggles to maintain cultural heritage amidst these challenges.
Cultural revitalization movements: Cultural revitalization movements refer to efforts by indigenous communities to reclaim, revive, and strengthen their cultural identities, traditions, languages, and practices that have been suppressed or eroded due to colonization or globalization. These movements often seek to re-establish connections to cultural heritage through art, storytelling, and traditional practices. Such revitalization is crucial for fostering community resilience and pride, as well as ensuring the survival of unique cultural expressions.
Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced removal or relocation of individuals or communities from their ancestral lands or territories, often resulting in cultural and social disruptions. This concept is deeply rooted in the experiences of Native American communities, where loss of land has led to a profound impact on identity, language, and traditional practices, reflecting broader historical patterns of colonization and assimilation.
Dual cultural experiences: Dual cultural experiences refer to the complex interplay and coexistence of two distinct cultural identities within an individual or community. This phenomenon is particularly significant in the context of early Native American poetry and fiction, as it highlights the blending of Indigenous traditions with Western influences, often leading to a unique artistic expression that reflects both worlds.
Eagle: The eagle is a powerful bird of prey often revered in Native American cultures as a symbol of strength, courage, and spiritual connection. In early Native American poetry and fiction, the eagle serves as a prominent motif that reflects the themes of freedom, vision, and the relationship between humans and nature, highlighting its role in various myths and stories.
House Made of Dawn: House Made of Dawn is a seminal novel by N. Scott Momaday, published in 1968, that is considered a cornerstone of Native American literature. The story explores the life of a young Native American man, Abel, as he navigates the challenges of cultural identity and the disconnection between his traditional roots and modern society.
Imagery: Imagery refers to the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses, helping to create vivid mental pictures for the reader. It plays a crucial role in conveying emotions and experiences, enriching the reader's understanding and connection to the text.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act reflects broader themes of colonial expansion, cultural disruption, and the consequences of governmental policies on indigenous populations.
Jane Johnston Schoolcraft: Jane Johnston Schoolcraft was a prominent 19th-century Native American writer and poet, known for her contributions to early Native American literature. She was of Ojibwe descent and is celebrated for her ability to blend Native oral traditions with written forms, creating works that reflect her cultural heritage and personal experiences.
Land as character: Land as character refers to the concept in literature where the landscape itself takes on a significant role, almost like a character, influencing the story and the characters within it. In early Native American poetry and fiction, this idea emphasizes the deep spiritual connection that Indigenous people have with their land, portraying it not just as a backdrop but as an active participant in the narrative.
Loss: Loss refers to the experience of grief, absence, or deprivation resulting from the absence of something that once held value. In the context of early Native American poetry and fiction, loss often reflects the deep emotional and cultural wounds experienced by Indigenous peoples due to colonization, displacement, and the erosion of traditional practices and languages.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things, suggesting that one thing is another to highlight similarities between them. This technique is often used in literature to convey deeper meanings and evoke emotions, enriching the reader's understanding and experience.
Mythology: Mythology refers to a collection of traditional stories that explain the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture. In many Native American cultures, these stories are foundational, providing insights into creation, moral lessons, and the relationship between humans and the natural world. Myths serve not only as entertainment but also as educational tools that preserve cultural heritage and convey spiritual wisdom.
Oral storytelling techniques: Oral storytelling techniques refer to the methods and practices used in the art of telling stories verbally, which includes the use of rhythm, repetition, and expressive vocalization to engage audiences. These techniques are deeply rooted in cultural traditions and serve to convey history, morals, and communal knowledge while creating a shared experience between the storyteller and listeners. In various forms of literature and performance, these techniques enhance the emotional and dramatic impact of the narratives being told.
Oral tradition: Oral tradition refers to the practice of passing down stories, histories, and cultural knowledge through spoken word rather than written texts. This method is crucial in preserving the identities, beliefs, and values of Native American cultures and plays a vital role in their literary expressions and forms.
Post-colonial: Post-colonial refers to the period and theories that emerged after the decline of colonial empires, focusing on the effects of colonization on cultures, identities, and societies. It encompasses the ways in which formerly colonized nations reclaim their narratives, addressing issues of power dynamics, cultural representation, and identity formation in literature and beyond.
Pre-colonial: The term pre-colonial refers to the period and conditions of Indigenous societies before the arrival of European colonizers. This era is characterized by diverse cultural, social, and political structures that existed among Native American tribes, which significantly influenced their literary expressions, including poetry and fiction, reflecting their traditions, beliefs, and relationship with the land.
Prose Poetry: Prose poetry is a form of writing that blends elements of prose and poetry, using the format of prose while employing poetic techniques such as heightened imagery, emotional depth, and rhythm. This genre is significant as it allows for the expression of complex ideas and feelings without the constraints of traditional poetic forms, making it particularly impactful in early Native American literature where storytelling traditions often merge with poetic language.
Resistance: Resistance refers to the active efforts by individuals or groups to oppose, challenge, or reject external pressures or dominant narratives imposed upon them. In the context of Native American cultures, resistance often manifests through the preservation of cultural identity and traditions, particularly in response to colonization and assimilation efforts. This resistance is deeply intertwined with oral traditions and early literature, as both serve as powerful vehicles for expressing and maintaining Indigenous voices and perspectives against the backdrop of historical oppression.
River: A river is a natural flowing watercourse, typically freshwater, that flows towards an ocean, sea, lake, or another river. In the context of early Native American poetry and fiction, rivers often symbolize life, sustenance, and the interconnectedness of nature and culture, serving as essential elements in storytelling and cultural identity.
Sense of belonging: A sense of belonging refers to the feeling of being accepted and valued as part of a community or group. This feeling plays a crucial role in shaping individual identities, especially within cultural and social contexts, as it fosters connections and reinforces shared values among members. In the realm of early Native American poetry and fiction, this sense often reflects the deep ties between individuals and their heritage, land, and community narratives.
Spirituality: Spirituality refers to the personal search for meaning, connection, and transcendence in life, often involving a sense of belonging to something greater than oneself. This concept is deeply woven into Native American traditions, influencing their poetry, stories, and art, as it encapsulates their relationships with nature, ancestors, and the cosmos.
Storyteller: A storyteller is an individual who conveys tales, legends, and narratives, often rooted in cultural traditions and communal experiences. This role is vital in preserving the history and values of a community, serving as a bridge between past and present, and reinforcing cultural identity through oral tradition. In Native American contexts, storytellers use their art to reflect social values, spiritual beliefs, and cultural practices, providing insight into the collective consciousness of their people.
Symbolism: Symbolism is the use of symbols to represent ideas, emotions, or concepts in literature, often imbuing ordinary objects or actions with deeper meanings. It allows writers to convey complex themes and evoke emotional responses through metaphorical language, creating layers of meaning that resonate with readers.
Trickster tradition: The trickster tradition refers to a recurring theme in Native American storytelling and literature where a clever, mischievous character, often an animal or human, uses wit and deception to outsmart others. This figure embodies complex qualities, such as wisdom and folly, and serves to challenge societal norms, reveal truths, and provide moral lessons. The trickster's antics highlight the unpredictable nature of life and the importance of adaptability.
William Apess: William Apess was a prominent 19th-century Native American author, preacher, and activist known for his contributions to early American literature and his advocacy for Indigenous rights. As a member of the Pequot tribe, Apess utilized his writing to address social justice issues and the experiences of Native Americans during a time of increasing displacement and discrimination. His works reflect a critical perspective on race, identity, and the historical narratives surrounding Indigenous peoples in America.