1.1 Historical and Cultural Context of Native American Literature
4 min read•july 30, 2024
Native American literature reflects the complex history and diverse cultures of Indigenous peoples in North America. Colonization, forced relocation, and assimilation policies have profoundly impacted Native communities, shaping literary themes of loss, survival, and cultural resilience.
Native writers draw on rich oral traditions, blending ancestral storytelling with contemporary forms. Their works explore tribal identity, , and social issues, offering unique perspectives on the Native American experience while challenging stereotypes and reclaiming narrative control.
Colonization's Impact on Native American Literature
Colonial Policies and Cultural Disruption
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- European colonization caused widespread displacement and cultural disruption for Native American communities
- Loss of ancestral lands led to fragmentation of tribal societies
- Forced relocation to reservations disrupted traditional ways of life
- of 1830 resulted in forced migrations of many tribes
- (Cherokee) exemplifies trauma of forced relocation
- Narratives of loss and survival emerged in oral and written traditions
- Assimilation policies aimed to eradicate Native cultures and languages
- of 1887 broke up tribal lands into individual allotments
- Boarding school system separated children from families and cultures
- reflected in literature (Erdrich's "The Round House")
Literary Responses and Cultural Resilience
- Concept of "" emphasizes active Native presence and resistance
- Term coined by Anishinaabe scholar Gerald Vizenor
- Literature asserts cultural continuity despite colonial pressures
- Themes of and hybridity prevalent in Native literature
- Authors explore complexities of Native identity in modern society
- Works often depict struggle to maintain traditions amid assimilation
- of 1934 influenced tribal self-governance
- Cultural revitalization movements emerged in mid-20th century
- Contemporary literature explores themes of sovereignty and nation-building (Silko's "Ceremony")
Diversity of Native American Cultures
Tribal Specificity and Cultural Variation
- Over 570 federally recognized Native American tribes in United States
- Each tribe has distinct cultural practices, languages, and traditions
- Literary expressions vary widely between tribes (Navajo vs. Iroquois)
- Geographical factors significantly influence Native cultures and literature
- Coastal tribes (Tlingit) vs. Plains tribes (Lakota) have distinct narratives
- often reflect specific landscapes and ecosystems
- Native languages shape unique literary styles and narrative structures
- Verb-based languages (Navajo) vs. noun-based languages (English)
- Untranslatable concepts often central to tribal-specific literature
Contemporary Native Identity and Pan-Indian Approaches
- approaches risk oversimplifying complex cultural differences
- Tribe-specific analysis crucial for accurate literary interpretation
- Avoid generalizations about "Native American literature" as monolithic
- Ceremonial and spiritual practices vary widely among Native cultures
- Inform distinct literary motifs and symbolic representations
- Sun Dance (Plains tribes) vs. Green Corn Ceremony (Southeast tribes)
- Contemporary literature explores complexities of tribal identity
- Mixed heritage and increasingly addressed
- Works examine cultural hybridity and adaptation (Alexie's "The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian")
Oral Traditions in Native American Literature
Foundations and Functions of Oral Traditions
- Oral traditions form foundation of Native American literature
- Encompass creation stories, legends, songs, and
- Serve as vehicle for cultural knowledge, history, and spiritual teachings
- Concept of "story" extends beyond entertainment in many Native cultures
- Stories act as living repositories of tribal wisdom and law
- Oral narratives often tied to specific landscapes and sacred sites
- Role of often sacred in Native American cultures
- Responsibilities include preserving and transmitting cultural knowledge
- Storytellers undergo extensive training in many tribes (Hopi)
Influence on Written Literature
- Oral storytelling techniques influence style of written Native literature
- and circular narrative structures common (Momaday's "The Way to Rainy Mountain")
- Use of specific rhetorical devices (Medicine River by Thomas King)
- Many authors incorporate elements of in written works
- Blend traditional storytelling with contemporary literary forms
- Use of embedded stories and (Erdrich's "Tracks")
- Transition from oral to written literature presents challenges and opportunities
- Preservation of traditional narratives in new medium
- Adaptation of oral techniques to written format (use of dialect and code-switching)
Native American Literature and Social Realities
Political and Economic Themes
- Literature frequently addresses issues of sovereignty and land rights
- Reflect ongoing struggles faced by tribal nations
- and broken promises often central themes (Vine Deloria Jr.'s works)
- Economic challenges recurrent in Native American literary works
- Poverty and unemployment on reservations explored
- Resource exploitation on tribal lands criticized (Silko's "Almanac of the Dead")
- increasingly reflected in contemporary literature
- Impact of climate change on Native communities addressed
- highlighted (Kimmerer's "Braiding Sweetgrass")
Social Issues and Cultural Representation
- Literature explores complexities of identity and belonging
- Reservation life vs. urban relocation experiences contrasted
- and its effects on Native identity examined
- Health disparities addressed in many Native American works
- Impact of alcoholism, diabetes, and mental health challenges explored
- and its intergenerational effects depicted
- Native representation in media critically examined in literature
- Challenges stereotypes and misrepresentations
- Reclaims narrative control over Native stories and images
- Contemporary social issues serve as platforms for literary activism
- highlighted (Highway's "Kiss of the Fur Queen")
- in Native communities explored (Driskill's poetry)
- criticized and analyzed
Key Terms to Review (25)
Ceremonial narratives: Ceremonial narratives are stories or accounts that play a significant role in the spiritual and cultural practices of Native American communities, often reflecting their beliefs, traditions, and social structures. These narratives are not just for entertainment; they serve to convey important teachings, rituals, and values that are central to the identity of the community. Through ceremonial narratives, cultural knowledge is transmitted from generation to generation, linking past and present.
Creation stories: Creation stories are traditional narratives that explain the origin of the world, its inhabitants, and the cultural values of a community. These stories serve as a means of passing down important teachings, connecting people to their environment, and establishing their place within it. They often reflect the spiritual beliefs and practices of the culture, emphasizing the relationship between humans, nature, and the divine.
Cultural Appropriation: Cultural appropriation refers to the act of taking or using elements from a culture, particularly one that is marginalized or oppressed, without permission or understanding. This often involves a power imbalance where the dominant culture exploits aspects of the minority culture, leading to misrepresentation and commodification. It raises important questions about identity, representation, and the ethics of borrowing cultural practices and symbols.
Cultural diaspora: Cultural diaspora refers to the spread and movement of a group of people from their original homeland to various parts of the world, where they maintain their cultural identity while adapting to new environments. This term highlights the importance of cultural exchange, retention, and transformation among displaced communities, often shaped by historical events such as colonization, forced relocation, or voluntary migration. It also emphasizes the interconnectedness of cultural practices across geographical boundaries.
Cultural Identity: Cultural identity refers to the sense of belonging to a particular cultural group, shaped by shared customs, beliefs, language, and history. It plays a vital role in how individuals perceive themselves and their connection to their heritage, especially within the context of storytelling and artistic expressions.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, passed in 1887, was a federal law aimed at assimilating Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This act intended to break up tribal communal landholdings, promoting individual land ownership and agricultural development, which reflected broader policies of assimilation and cultural erasure during that era. The Dawes Act had profound impacts on the transition from oral to written literature, as many Native American tribes began documenting their histories and cultures in written form in response to these changes.
Environmental Concerns: Environmental concerns refer to the issues and challenges related to the natural environment and the impact of human activities on ecosystems. In Native American literature, these concerns often reflect a deep connection to land, nature, and the consequences of environmental degradation, highlighting the cultural significance of the earth and its resources.
Historical Trauma: Historical trauma refers to the cumulative emotional and psychological wounds experienced by a group due to historical events such as colonization, genocide, and systemic oppression. This concept is crucial in understanding how the past influences the identity, culture, and lived experiences of Native American communities today.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act was a law passed in 1830 that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the Mississippi River. This act reflects broader themes of colonial expansion, cultural disruption, and the consequences of governmental policies on indigenous populations.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act, passed in 1934, aimed to reverse the effects of the Dawes Act by promoting self-governance and cultural preservation among Native American tribes. This legislation sought to restore tribal sovereignty and encouraged tribes to establish their own governments, manage their lands, and revitalize their cultural practices, fostering a renewed sense of identity and community. The act marked a significant shift in federal policy towards Native Americans, recognizing their rights and autonomy after years of assimilation efforts.
Intergenerational trauma: Intergenerational trauma refers to the psychological and emotional effects of trauma experienced by one generation that are passed down to subsequent generations. This concept is particularly significant in Native American communities, where historical events such as colonization, forced assimilation, and cultural dislocation have left lasting scars on the collective psyche, influencing identity, relationships, and community health.
Lgbtq+ rights: LGBTQ+ rights refer to the social and legal rights that protect individuals who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and others in the spectrum of sexual and gender identities. These rights encompass issues such as marriage equality, anti-discrimination protections, and the right to express one's identity without fear of persecution. Understanding LGBTQ+ rights is essential in recognizing how these identities intersect with broader cultural and historical narratives.
Non-linear timelines: Non-linear timelines refer to narrative structures that do not follow a chronological order, allowing events to unfold in a way that may jump back and forth in time. This technique enables storytellers to create complex narratives that reflect the cyclical nature of time in many cultures, particularly in Native American storytelling traditions. By presenting events out of sequence, authors can explore themes of memory, identity, and the interconnectedness of past, present, and future.
Oral tradition: Oral tradition refers to the practice of passing down stories, histories, and cultural knowledge through spoken word rather than written texts. This method is crucial in preserving the identities, beliefs, and values of Native American cultures and plays a vital role in their literary expressions and forms.
Pan-indian: Pan-Indian refers to a cultural and political movement that seeks to unify different Native American tribes and promote a shared identity, traditions, and political goals. This term highlights the collective experiences of Indigenous peoples across North America, transcending individual tribal affiliations to address common challenges and advocate for rights and recognition.
Repetition: Repetition is a literary device where words, phrases, or ideas are repeated to emphasize a point, create rhythm, or enhance the emotional impact of a narrative. In Native American literature, repetition plays a vital role in oral traditions and storytelling techniques, serving to reinforce cultural values and collective memory.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the authority of a state or governing body to govern itself and make its own laws without external interference. This concept is crucial in understanding the relationship between Native American tribes and the U.S. government, as it highlights the ongoing struggle for self-determination and political autonomy within Indigenous communities.
Storyteller: A storyteller is an individual who conveys tales, legends, and narratives, often rooted in cultural traditions and communal experiences. This role is vital in preserving the history and values of a community, serving as a bridge between past and present, and reinforcing cultural identity through oral tradition. In Native American contexts, storytellers use their art to reflect social values, spiritual beliefs, and cultural practices, providing insight into the collective consciousness of their people.
Survivance: Survivance is a concept that emphasizes the ongoing existence and resilience of Indigenous cultures, identities, and narratives despite historical trauma and colonial oppression. It highlights not just survival but also the active practice of cultural traditions and storytelling that affirm Indigenous presence in contemporary society.
Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) refers to the understandings, skills, and philosophies developed by Indigenous and local communities over generations through their interactions with the environment. This body of knowledge encompasses a deep understanding of ecosystems, species relationships, and sustainable practices that inform resource management and cultural practices, connecting closely to identity and cultural heritage.
Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of several Native American tribes, primarily the Cherokee, from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic journey resulted in the suffering and death of thousands due to harsh conditions, disease, and starvation, making it a significant event in Native American history.
Treaty obligations: Treaty obligations refer to the commitments and responsibilities that nations have under treaties, which are formal agreements between sovereign entities. In the context of Native American history and literature, these obligations often center around the promises made by the U.S. government to various tribes regarding land rights, resources, and self-governance. Understanding treaty obligations is crucial for recognizing the ongoing impacts of historical treaties on Native American communities and their literary expressions.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of indigenous tribes to govern themselves within the borders of the United States, recognizing them as distinct political entities with the power to create and enforce their own laws. This concept is deeply intertwined with the historical and cultural context of Native American communities, reflecting their rights to self-determination, governance, and cultural preservation in the face of external pressures.
Urban native experiences: Urban native experiences refer to the unique cultural, social, and economic realities faced by Native Americans living in urban environments, as opposed to traditional rural or reservation settings. These experiences are characterized by a complex interplay of identity, community, and adaptation, as urban natives navigate both the challenges of urban life and their connections to Indigenous culture and heritage.
Violence against indigenous women: Violence against indigenous women refers to the disproportionately high rates of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse that these women face, often exacerbated by systemic factors such as colonization, poverty, and inadequate legal protections. This violence is rooted in historical oppression and cultural marginalization, resulting in severe social and health consequences for indigenous communities.