🕌Islamic Art and Architecture Unit 10 – Islamic Art & Architecture: Later Period

Historical Context and Timeline

• Islamic art and architecture of the later period spans from the 13th to the 19th centuries, encompassing the rule of various dynasties such as the Mamluks, Timurids, Safavids, and Ottomans
• The Mongol invasions in the 13th century led to the destruction of many cities and cultural centers, but also facilitated the exchange of ideas and artistic styles across the Islamic world
• The rise of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century marked a new era of political stability and cultural flourishing, with the development of distinctive Ottoman styles in art and architecture
  • The Ottomans consolidated their power over much of the Middle East, North Africa, and the Balkans, creating a vast and diverse empire
  • The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Sultan Mehmed II was a turning point, transforming the city into the imperial capital of Istanbul
• The Safavid dynasty in Iran (1501-1736) patronized the arts and oversaw the construction of grand mosques, palaces, and public works, often featuring elaborate tilework and calligraphy
• The Mughal Empire in India (1526-1857) developed a unique synthesis of Islamic, Persian, and Indian artistic traditions, exemplified by the iconic Taj Mahal (completed in 1653)
• The 18th and 19th centuries saw increased contact with European powers, leading to artistic exchanges and the incorporation of Western elements into Islamic art and architecture

Key Architectural Styles and Innovations

• The later period of Islamic architecture witnessed the refinement and elaboration of established styles, as well as the emergence of new regional variations
• The Ottoman style, characterized by large central domes, slender minarets, and a harmonious blend of Islamic and Byzantine elements, became a hallmark of Ottoman architecture (Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul)
• The Safavid style in Iran featured the extensive use of colorful tilework, intricate geometric patterns, and the integration of Persian garden design principles (Shah Mosque, Isfahan)
• The Mughal style in India combined Islamic, Persian, and Hindu architectural elements, with a focus on symmetry, balance, and the use of white marble and inlaid precious stones (Humayun's Tomb, Delhi)
• Innovations in dome construction, such as the use of double-shell domes and the development of the "Persian dome" with a bulbous profile, allowed for greater heights and more elaborate interior spaces
• The introduction of the "four-iwan" plan, featuring a central courtyard with four grand arched entrances (iwans) on each side, became a common layout for mosques and madrasas (Registan Square, Samarkand)
• The use of muqarnas, a type of ornamental vaulting featuring complex geometric patterns, reached new heights of sophistication and intricacy in the later period

Iconic Structures and Monuments

• The Taj Mahal in Agra, India, commissioned by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, stands as a testament to the grandeur and elegance of Mughal architecture
  • The white marble mausoleum features a central dome, four minarets, and intricate inlaid decorations, set within a formal Persian garden
• The Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, built by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, exemplifies the classical Ottoman style with its central dome, semi-domes, and slender minarets
• The Shah Mosque (Imam Mosque) in Isfahan, Iran, is renowned for its stunning tilework, featuring intricate floral and geometric patterns in vibrant colors, and its grand central courtyard with four iwans
• The Alhambra palace complex in Granada, Spain, represents the pinnacle of Nasrid architecture, with its intricately decorated courtyards, halls, and gardens featuring elaborate stucco work, tilework, and calligraphy
• The Registan Square in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, is an ensemble of three monumental madrasas (Islamic schools) from the Timurid period, each featuring a grand iwan entrance, mosaic tilework, and a central courtyard
• The Masjid-i Jahan-Numa (Jama Masjid) in Delhi, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, is one of the largest mosques in India, with a vast central courtyard, three grand domes, and two towering minarets

Decorative Arts and Craftsmanship

• The later period of Islamic art saw a continued emphasis on calligraphy, with the development of new scripts and styles, such as the ornate Thuluth and Nasta'liq scripts
  • Calligraphy was used to adorn buildings, textiles, ceramics, and manuscripts, often featuring Quranic verses or poetic inscriptions
• The art of tilework reached new heights, with the creation of intricate mosaic patterns, luster tiles, and the cuerda seca technique, which allowed for greater precision and color variation (Shah Mosque, Isfahan)
• Carpets and textiles became increasingly sophisticated, with the development of new weaving techniques, such as the double-knot and the use of silk and metal threads (Ardabil Carpet, Iran)
• Metalwork, including brass, bronze, and silver, featured intricate engraving, inlay, and openwork designs, often with calligraphic inscriptions and arabesque motifs (Baptistère de Saint Louis, Syria)
• The art of manuscript illumination flourished, with the creation of lavishly decorated Qurans, poetry collections, and scientific treatises, featuring miniature paintings, marginal decorations, and elaborate frontispieces (Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp, Iran)
• Woodwork and carved stucco reached new levels of intricacy and refinement, with the creation of elaborate muqarnas vaults, lattice screens, and minbars (pulpits) in mosques and palaces (Alhambra, Granada)

Religious and Cultural Influences

• The later period of Islamic art and architecture continued to be deeply influenced by religious beliefs and practices, with the mosque serving as the focal point of religious and social life
  • The design and decoration of mosques reflected the importance of prayer, with the orientation towards Mecca (qibla), the use of calligraphy to convey Quranic messages, and the creation of serene and contemplative spaces
• Sufi mysticism and the veneration of saints influenced the development of shrine architecture, with the construction of elaborate tombs and mausoleums for revered figures (Tomb of Hafez, Shiraz)
• The pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) and the growth of trade routes fostered cultural exchange and the dissemination of artistic styles and techniques across the Islamic world
• The patronage of rulers, courtly elites, and wealthy merchants played a significant role in shaping the artistic production of the period, with the commissioning of grand architectural projects, luxury objects, and illustrated manuscripts
• The interaction between Islamic and non-Islamic cultures, particularly in regions such as Spain, the Balkans, and India, led to the incorporation of local artistic traditions and the development of hybrid styles (Mudéjar art in Spain)
• The rise of Shi'a Islam in Iran under the Safavids led to the development of a distinct Shi'a artistic tradition, with a focus on the veneration of the Twelve Imams and the depiction of religious narratives in art and architecture (Imam Reza Shrine, Mashhad)

Regional Variations and Local Traditions

• The later period of Islamic art and architecture saw the emergence of distinct regional styles, reflecting the diverse cultural, political, and geographical contexts of the Islamic world
• In the Ottoman Empire, the classical Ottoman style, characterized by large central domes, slender minarets, and the use of iznik tiles, became the dominant architectural language (Selimiye Mosque, Edirne)
  • Ottoman calligraphy, particularly the Thuluth and Diwani scripts, reached new levels of sophistication and elegance
• In Safavid Iran, the integration of Persian cultural elements, such as the use of colorful tilework, the incorporation of garden design principles, and the depiction of secular themes in art, led to the development of a unique Safavid style (Chehel Sotoun Palace, Isfahan)
• The Mughal Empire in India developed a distinctive architectural style that blended Islamic, Persian, and Hindu elements, with a focus on symmetry, the use of white marble, and the incorporation of naturalistic floral motifs (Itimad-ud-Daulah's Tomb, Agra)
  • Mughal painting, characterized by its fine brushwork, vivid colors, and attention to detail, reached its zenith under the patronage of emperors such as Akbar and Jahangir
• In Central Asia, the Timurid period saw the development of a highly refined architectural style, with the use of intricate geometric tilework, the four-iwan plan, and the incorporation of Persian and Chinese elements (Gur-e Amir, Samarkand)
• In the Maghreb and Al-Andalus, the Moorish style, characterized by the use of horseshoe arches, intricate stucco work, and the integration of water features and gardens, continued to evolve and inspire later architectural developments (Alhambra, Granada)

Materials and Construction Techniques

• The later period of Islamic architecture saw the continued use of traditional materials, such as brick, stone, and wood, as well as the incorporation of new materials and techniques
• The use of brick and glazed tilework became increasingly widespread, with the development of new techniques for creating intricate mosaic patterns and luster tiles (Shah Mosque, Isfahan)
  • The cuerda seca technique, which involved the use of a greasy substance to separate different colored glazes, allowed for greater precision and color variation in tilework
• Stone, particularly marble, was widely used in the construction of monuments, tombs, and decorative elements, with the development of sophisticated carving and inlay techniques (Taj Mahal, Agra)
• The use of wood, particularly in the construction of domes, minbars, and carved screens, required highly skilled craftsmanship and the development of complex joinery techniques (Minbar of the Kutubiyya Mosque, Marrakesh)
• The introduction of new building materials, such as the use of cast iron and glass in the 19th century, led to the incorporation of European architectural elements and the development of hybrid styles (Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul)
• Advances in structural engineering, such as the use of squinches and pendentives to transition from a square base to a circular dome, allowed for the construction of larger and more elaborate domed spaces (Selimiye Mosque, Edirne)
• The development of sophisticated water management systems, including the use of fountains, channels, and underground cisterns, played a crucial role in the design and functionality of Islamic gardens and palace complexes (Generalife, Granada)

Legacy and Global Impact

• The later period of Islamic art and architecture left a lasting legacy, influencing artistic and architectural developments in the Islamic world and beyond
• The spread of Islamic art and architecture through trade, diplomacy, and cultural exchange led to the incorporation of Islamic elements in the art and architecture of neighboring regions, such as the Balkans, East Africa, and Southeast Asia
  • The adoption of Islamic motifs, such as arabesque patterns and calligraphy, in the decorative arts of Europe, particularly during the Ottoman period, reflects the cultural interactions and artistic exchanges of the time
• The monumental architecture of the later period, such as the Taj Mahal and the Süleymaniye Mosque, continues to inspire and influence contemporary architects and designers, serving as iconic symbols of Islamic cultural heritage
• The legacy of Islamic garden design, with its emphasis on symmetry, water features, and the creation of microclimates, has had a lasting impact on landscape architecture and the development of public parks and gardens worldwide
• The intellectual and scientific achievements of the Islamic world during this period, particularly in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, laid the foundation for later advances and contributed to the development of global knowledge networks
• The preservation and restoration of Islamic architectural heritage has become a priority for many countries and international organizations, recognizing the cultural, historical, and artistic significance of these monuments
• The study and appreciation of Islamic art and architecture has grown in recent decades, with the establishment of dedicated museums, research centers, and educational programs aimed at promoting a deeper understanding and appreciation of this rich cultural tradition