10.3 Roman Beliefs about Death and the Afterlife
5 min read•august 16, 2024
Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife were complex and multifaceted. They encompassed ideas about the underworld, funerary practices, and the roles of various deities in guiding souls to the afterlife.
These beliefs shaped how Romans approached death, burial customs, and ancestor worship. They also influenced art, literature, and daily life, reflecting the importance of the afterlife in Roman culture and society.
Roman Underworld and Funerary Practices
Underworld Geography and Mythology
Top images from around the web for Underworld Geography and Mythology
Styx - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman funerary practices - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman Funerary Inscription (Getty Museum) View original
Is this image relevant?
Styx - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman funerary practices - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Underworld Geography and Mythology
Styx - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman funerary practices - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman Funerary Inscription (Getty Museum) View original
Is this image relevant?
Styx - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Roman funerary practices - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Roman underworld known as or Dis resided beneath the earth where souls of the deceased dwelled after death
- Underworld divided into regions including for virtuous souls and for wicked reflecting Roman morality concepts
- Rivers of the underworld played significant roles in mythology (Styx, Acheron)
- Styx marked the boundary between Earth and the underworld
- Acheron known as the "river of sorrow" that dead souls crossed to enter the underworld
- Underworld references appeared in funerary inscriptions and epitaphs demonstrating its importance in Roman death conceptions
Funerary Practices and Burial Customs
- Grave goods and offerings provided to ensure deceased's comfortable passage and existence in underworld
- Common offerings included food, drink, personal items, and coins for 's ferry
- Burial practices influenced by beliefs about preserving the body for afterlife journey
- involved burying the intact body, often in ornate sarcophagi
- became more common in later periods, with ashes placed in urns or columbaria
- Tombs and mausoleums designed to resemble houses reflecting belief in continued existence in underworld
- Elaborate tomb structures included dining areas for funerary feasts (triclinia)
- Wall paintings and mosaics in tombs depicted scenes from daily life or mythological themes
Deities of Death and the Afterlife
Major Underworld Deities
- Pluto ruled as primary god of the underworld controlling access to mineral wealth buried in earth
- Also known as , emphasizing his role as "Father of Riches"
- served as Pluto's wife and queen of underworld associated with life death and rebirth cycle
- Her annual return to the surface world linked to agricultural cycles and seasons
- acted as psychopomp guiding souls of deceased to underworld and facilitating communication between living and dead
- Often depicted holding the caduceus, a staff symbolizing his role as divine messenger
Minor Deities and Mythological Figures
- Charon transported souls across underworld rivers necessitating burial practice of placing coins on eyes or in mouth of deceased
- Known as "Charon's obol," this custom ensured the dead could pay for their passage
- Three-headed dog guarded entrance to underworld preventing living from entering and dead from escaping
- Sometimes depicted in funerary art as a symbol of the boundary between life and death
- Fates () determined length and course of each person's life influencing Roman beliefs about predestination and afterlife
- Consisted of three sisters: Nona (spun the thread of life), Decima (measured it), and Morta (cut it)
- Minor deities associated with death and afterlife passage in Roman mythology
- personified night and darkness, often linked to sleep and death
- represented sleep, sometimes depicted as a winged youth or elderly man
Ancestor Worship and Parentalia
Ancestor Worship Practices
- Ancestor worship fundamental aspect of Roman religion with deceased family members becoming divine spirits called Manes or Di Parentes
- Household shrines called dedicated to Lares (household gods) often included images of revered ancestors
- Lararia typically located in the atrium or kitchen of Roman homes
- Daily offerings of food, wine, or incense made to ancestors at these shrines
- Concept of (dutiful respect for family and ancestors) closely tied to ancestor worship considered fundamental Roman virtue
- Pietas extended beyond immediate family to include reverence for the state and gods
Parentalia Festival and Rituals
- festival held annually in February dedicated to honoring deceased ancestors and maintaining familial bonds beyond death
- Nine-day period of commemoration and ritual observance
- Families visited tombs offered food and drink to ancestor spirits and performed rituals to appease and honor dead
- Common offerings included salt, bread dipped in wine, violets, and other flowers
- Festival concluded with public feast day where entire community participated in honoring collective ancestors of Rome
- Public temples closed during Parentalia, emphasizing focus on private family observances
- Ancestor worship played crucial role in maintaining family identity social status and political legitimacy in Roman society
- Elite families often displayed ancestor masks (imagines) during funeral processions and public events
Evolution of Roman Afterlife Beliefs
Early Roman Beliefs and Cultural Influences
- Early Roman afterlife beliefs focused on ancestor worship and continuation of familial bonds with less emphasis on individual afterlife experiences
- Greek influences significantly shaped Roman conceptions of underworld and its deities through adoption of Greek mythology
- Resulted in syncretism between Roman and Greek deities (Jupiter/Zeus, Mars/Ares)
- Etruscan funerary practices and beliefs influenced Roman attitudes towards death and burial customs
- Elaborate Etruscan tomb structures inspired Roman mausoleum designs
- Vivid Etruscan depictions of afterlife journey influenced Roman funerary art
Later Developments and Philosophical Influences
- Mystery cults introduced new concepts of personal salvation and afterlife rewards to Roman society
- Eleusinian Mysteries promised initiates a blessed afterlife
- Cult of Isis offered hope for rebirth and eternal life
- Philosophical schools challenged traditional afterlife beliefs and offered alternative views on nature of death and soul
- Stoicism emphasized acceptance of death as part of natural order
- Epicureanism argued against fear of death, claiming the soul ceased to exist after death
- Christianity in later Roman Empire introduced concepts of resurrection eternal life and divine judgment
- Gradual shift from cyclical to linear view of time and afterlife
- Emphasis on moral behavior in life determining eternal fate
- Syncretism between traditional Roman beliefs and those of conquered peoples led to regional afterlife concept variations throughout empire
- Egyptian influences in Roman Egypt resulted in adoption of mummification practices
- Celtic afterlife beliefs integrated into Romano-Celtic religious practices in Gaul and Britain
Key Terms to Review (31)
Burial Urns: Burial urns are containers used to hold the ashes or remains of the deceased after cremation or to store grave goods. In Roman culture, these urns were often elaborately decorated and sometimes inscribed, reflecting the beliefs about death and the afterlife. They served not only a practical purpose in preserving the remains but also a symbolic one, as they connected the living with their deceased loved ones, embodying the Romans' view of mortality and the journey beyond.
Catacombs of Rome: The Catacombs of Rome are a network of underground burial sites that were used by early Christians during the Roman Empire. These catacombs served not only as graves but also as places of worship and refuge during periods of persecution, reflecting the unique Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife. Their significance extends to their role in understanding Roman funerary practices and the development of early Christian art and architecture.
Cerberus: Cerberus is a multi-headed dog from Greek mythology that guards the entrance to the Underworld, preventing the dead from leaving and the living from entering. This creature symbolizes the boundary between life and death, embodying Roman beliefs about the afterlife and the importance of proper burial rites to ensure peace for the deceased.
Charon: Charon is a figure from Roman mythology who serves as the ferryman of the Underworld, transporting souls across the river Styx to the afterlife. He is typically depicted as a grim, bearded figure who demands payment for his services, often in the form of an obol, a small coin placed in the mouth of the deceased for passage. This role highlights the Romans' beliefs about death, the afterlife, and the importance of proper burial practices to ensure safe passage.
Chthonic deities: Chthonic deities are gods and goddesses associated with the underworld and the earth, often linked to themes of death, the afterlife, and the fertility of the soil. In Roman beliefs, these deities played a crucial role in understanding death and what happens after, reflecting the complex views about life, death, and the journey of the soul. They were not just feared but also revered, as they were believed to influence both agricultural fertility and the fate of the deceased in the afterlife.
Columbarium: A columbarium is a structure designed to hold urns containing the ashes of cremated individuals, often organized into niches. These architectural features are significant in understanding Roman funerary practices and beliefs about the afterlife, as they reflect how the Romans honored their deceased and maintained connections with them through memorialization.
Cremation: Cremation is the process of reducing a deceased body to ash and bone fragments through intense heat, often performed in a specially designed furnace. This practice was common in the Roman world, where it reflected social status, beliefs about the afterlife, and specific burial customs that varied across different regions and periods.
Dii manes: Dii manes refers to the spirits of the deceased in Roman belief, particularly the souls of ancestors who were honored and revered. These spirits were thought to exist in the afterlife and played a crucial role in Roman religious practices, as they were believed to influence the living by offering protection or causing misfortune based on how they were treated through rituals and offerings.
Dis pater: Dis Pater is the Roman god of the underworld, often associated with wealth and the afterlife. He is equivalent to the Greek god Hades and represents the darker aspects of death and the notion of ancestral spirits. Dis Pater was believed to govern the realm of the dead, where souls would go after death, and he was invoked during funerary rituals, reflecting the Romans' complex beliefs about death and what lies beyond.
Elysium: Elysium, in Roman beliefs, refers to a paradisiacal afterlife realm where the souls of the virtuous and heroic could dwell in peace and happiness after death. This concept reflects the Romans' views on moral virtue and the rewards for a life well-lived, drawing parallels to the Greek notion of Elysian Fields, where the righteous enjoyed eternal bliss.
Ex votos: Ex votos are votive offerings made to deities in fulfillment of a promise or in gratitude for favors received. In Roman culture, these offerings were often small objects or inscriptions that individuals dedicated to gods or goddesses as part of their beliefs about death and the afterlife, reflecting a desire for divine assistance in securing a favorable outcome after death.
Feralia: Feralia was a Roman festival held in mid-February that honored the dead and the spirits of the ancestors. This event reflected Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, emphasizing the importance of remembering and honoring those who had passed away. During Feralia, families would visit graves, leave offerings, and perform rituals to appease the spirits, showcasing a blend of reverence and duty towards the deceased.
Funerary games: Funerary games were athletic contests and various events held in ancient Rome to honor the deceased during their funerals. These games served as both a tribute to the dead and a means for the living to publicly display their grief and respect, embodying the belief that the deceased continued to exist in an afterlife where such honors were essential.
Inhumation: Inhumation is the act of burying a deceased individual in the ground, as opposed to cremation or other methods of disposal. This practice was common in ancient Rome, where burial sites were often marked by grave goods and funerary monuments, reflecting the beliefs and customs surrounding death and the afterlife.
Lararia: Lararia are small household shrines found in ancient Roman homes, dedicated to the Lares, the protective deities of the household. These shrines served as sacred spaces where families could honor their ancestors and deities, providing a focal point for daily rituals and offerings. Lararia were commonly situated in the atrium or main living area, symbolizing the blend of domestic life with religious practice.
Libation: A libation is a ritual pouring of a liquid, often wine or oil, as an offering to a deity or in honor of the deceased. This practice holds significant importance in ancient Roman culture, particularly in relation to beliefs about death and the afterlife, where it was used to nourish the spirits of the dead and ensure their favor. Libations were typically performed at gravesites, in domestic settings, and during religious ceremonies, reinforcing social connections between the living and the dead.
Mausoleum of Augustus: The Mausoleum of Augustus is a large tomb built in 28 BCE for the Roman Emperor Augustus, symbolizing his power and divine status. This monumental structure served as a final resting place for Augustus and later became the burial site for several members of the imperial family, reflecting the significance of burial customs in Roman society and the beliefs surrounding death and the afterlife.
Mercury: Mercury, in Roman mythology, is the god of commerce, travel, and communication, often depicted as a messenger of the gods. He is associated with speed and agility, symbolized by his winged sandals and caduceus. Mercury also plays a significant role in the Roman pantheon as a guide for souls to the underworld, bridging the world of the living and the dead.
Nox: In ancient Roman culture, 'nox' refers to night, often symbolizing darkness and the unknown. This concept was intricately tied to Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, as the night was seen as a time when spirits could roam and transition between the world of the living and the realm of the dead. The Romans held various rituals during the night, believing it was essential for honoring the deceased and ensuring a peaceful journey into the afterlife.
Orcus: Orcus is a Roman deity associated with the underworld and the afterlife, often considered a punisher of broken oaths and a guardian of the dead. In Roman belief, Orcus represents both a place and a being, embodying the notion of death as a serious consequence for moral transgressions. This term reflects the Romans' complex understanding of the afterlife, which involved fears of punishment and a desire for peace in death.
Parcae: The Parcae are the three goddesses of fate in Roman mythology, analogous to the Greek Moirai. They are responsible for controlling the life span and destiny of individuals, spinning the thread of life, measuring it, and eventually cutting it, symbolizing death. Their influence reflects Roman beliefs about the predetermined nature of life and death, as well as the importance of fate in human affairs.
Parentalia: Parentalia was an important Roman festival held in February, dedicated to honoring deceased ancestors. During this time, families would commemorate their loved ones through rituals that included visiting graves and offering sacrifices, showcasing the Romans' deep respect for their ancestors and their beliefs about the afterlife. This festival reflects key aspects of burial customs and the Roman perception of death, emphasizing the ongoing relationship between the living and the dead.
Phoenix: The phoenix is a mythical bird that symbolizes resurrection and immortality, known for its ability to rise from its ashes after being consumed by flames. In the context of Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, the phoenix embodies the idea of renewal and eternal life, reflecting the Romans' views on death not as an end, but as a transition to another existence.
Pietas: Pietas refers to a Roman virtue embodying duty, loyalty, and respect towards family, the gods, and the state. This concept was deeply embedded in Roman culture, influencing family dynamics, social roles, religious practices, and even the political landscape. It underscored the importance of familial responsibilities and social obligations while also playing a crucial role in rituals surrounding death and beliefs about the afterlife.
Piranesi's Tomb: Piranesi's Tomb refers to the imaginative and evocative illustrations created by the Italian artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi in the 18th century, depicting ancient Roman tombs and their intricate designs. These works not only showcase Piranesi's fascination with the ruins of Rome but also reflect broader Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, capturing the grandeur and significance attributed to funerary architecture in Roman culture.
Pliny the Elder: Pliny the Elder was a Roman author, naturalist, and philosopher who lived from 23 AD to 79 AD. He is best known for his encyclopedic work 'Natural History', which covers a wide range of topics, including botany, zoology, mineralogy, and the ancient beliefs surrounding death and the afterlife. His writings reflect Roman perspectives on these themes and provide valuable insights into how the Romans viewed the transition from life to death and what they believed lay beyond.
Proserpina: Proserpina is the Roman goddess of the underworld, often associated with springtime and the cycle of life and death. She is the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Persephone and plays a crucial role in the Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, representing the duality of life and death through her mythological narrative involving her abduction by Pluto, the god of the underworld.
Skulls: Skulls are the bony structures that form the head in vertebrates, including humans, and house the brain, support the face, and protect vital organs. In the context of Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, skulls often represent mortality, ancestral connections, and the transformation of the individual from life to death. The depiction of skulls in various rituals and funerary practices highlights their significance in understanding how Romans conceptualized existence beyond death.
Somnus: Somnus is the Latin term for sleep and, in the context of Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, it symbolizes the deep connection between sleep and death. Romans often viewed death as a permanent sleep, which influenced their rituals and ideas surrounding the afterlife. The idea of somnus encapsulated both a state of rest and a transition to another realm, reflecting their beliefs about what happens after life ends.
Tartarus: Tartarus is a deep, gloomy abyss in Greek mythology, often associated with the underworld, where the souls of the wicked are punished. In Roman beliefs, it became a crucial part of their understanding of the afterlife, serving as a place for those who committed grave offenses against the gods or humanity. This concept reflects the Romans' views on morality, justice, and the consequences of one's actions after death.
Virgil's Aeneid: Virgil's Aeneid is an epic poem written by the Roman poet Virgil, chronicling the journey of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, as he travels from Troy to Italy to fulfill his destiny of founding Rome. This work is not only a cornerstone of Roman literature but also reflects Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, showcasing the significance of fate, duty, and the divine in shaping human experiences beyond life.