11.4 Ethical issues in Greek archaeology and cultural heritage management

Greek archaeology grapples with ethical challenges around ownership, preservation, and stakeholder interests. Balancing research needs with local community rights and cultural sensitivities is crucial. The field faces ongoing debates on artifact repatriation and treatment of human remains.

Protecting Greek heritage involves international conventions and national laws, but enforcement remains difficult. The illicit trade in antiquities, fueled by global demand, threatens archaeological sites and corrupts historical knowledge. Combating this trade requires multilateral efforts and ethical collecting practices.

Ethical Issues in Greek Archaeology

Ownership and Preservation Challenges

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• Ownership and control of cultural heritage sites and artifacts is a major ethical issue, with debates over who has the right to manage, study, and profit from these resources (Parthenon Marbles)
• The preservation and protection of archaeological sites and artifacts from damage, destruction, or theft is an ongoing challenge and ethical responsibility for archaeologists and heritage managers (Akrotiri, Santorini)
  • Natural disasters, such as earthquakes and floods, can pose significant threats to the integrity of archaeological sites and artifacts
  • Human activities, such as urban development, tourism, and warfare, can also cause irreparable damage to cultural heritage

Balancing Stakeholder Interests and Ethical Dilemmas

• Balancing the interests of different stakeholders, such as local communities, tourists, researchers, and government agencies, can lead to ethical dilemmas and conflicts (Delphi)
  • Local communities may prioritize economic development and tourism, while archaeologists may prioritize research and preservation
  • Government agencies may have political or financial incentives that conflict with the goals of heritage management
• The commercialization of archaeology and cultural heritage, such as through tourism or the sale of artifacts, raises ethical questions about commodification, authenticity, and sustainability (Knossos)
  • Excessive tourism can lead to the degradation of archaeological sites and the displacement of local communities
  • The sale of authentic or replicated artifacts can blur the line between cultural appreciation and exploitation

Repatriation and Human Remains

• The repatriation of artifacts and human remains to their countries of origin or descendant communities is a contentious issue, with arguments for and against based on legal, ethical, and scientific considerations (Elgin Marbles)
  • Proponents argue that repatriation is a matter of cultural rights, national sovereignty, and historical justice
  • Opponents argue that universal museums serve important educational and research purposes, and that repatriation can be impractical or detrimental to the objects' preservation
• The treatment and display of human remains from archaeological contexts raise ethical questions about respect, consent, and cultural sensitivity (Mycenaean tombs)
  • Indigenous and descendant communities may view the excavation and study of human remains as a violation of their ancestors' rights and wishes
  • Archaeologists and museums must navigate the tensions between scientific inquiry and cultural values

Respecting Local Communities

Acknowledging Cultural Connections

• Local communities often have deep cultural, spiritual, and historical connections to archaeological sites and artifacts, which should be acknowledged and respected by archaeologists and heritage managers (Olympia)
  • These connections may be based on ancestral ties, religious beliefs, or traditional practices that have been passed down through generations
  • Failing to recognize and respect these connections can lead to mistrust, conflict, and the loss of valuable local knowledge and perspectives

Collaboration and Consent

• Engaging in meaningful consultation and collaboration with local communities is essential for building trust, gaining insights, and ensuring that their perspectives and needs are taken into account (Nemea)
  • This may involve regular meetings, workshops, and joint decision-making processes throughout the research and management process
  • Collaboration can also lead to the co-creation of knowledge, the integration of traditional and scientific approaches, and the development of culturally appropriate conservation strategies
• Obtaining free, prior, and informed consent from local communities before conducting archaeological research or implementing heritage management plans is an ethical imperative (Sesklo)
  • This means providing clear and accessible information about the proposed activities, their potential impacts, and the rights and options of the community
  • Consent should be voluntary, collective, and ongoing, with the possibility of withdrawal at any time

Respecting Traditional Knowledge and Practices

• Recognizing and respecting the traditional knowledge, practices, and beliefs of local communities, even if they differ from scientific or Western worldviews, is important for ethical and culturally sensitive archaeology (Meteora)
  • Local communities may have unique ways of understanding and interacting with the landscape, the environment, and the material remains of the past
  • Incorporating this knowledge into archaeological research and heritage management can lead to more holistic, contextual, and meaningful interpretations and strategies
• Ensuring that local communities benefit from archaeological research and heritage management, such as through job opportunities, education, or infrastructure development, is an ethical responsibility (Vergina)
  • This may involve training and employing local people in excavation, conservation, and tourism activities
  • It may also involve sharing the results of the research with the community, developing educational programs and resources, and investing in community projects and services

Protecting Greek Heritage

International Conventions

• The 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property is a key international agreement that aims to combat the illegal trade in cultural objects, including Greek antiquities
  • The convention requires member states to take measures to prevent the illicit export and import of cultural property, such as by establishing export certificates and prohibiting the acquisition of illegally exported objects
  • It also provides a framework for the restitution of stolen or illegally exported cultural objects, and for international cooperation in investigating and prosecuting cases of illicit trafficking
• The 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention recognizes the outstanding universal value of certain cultural and natural heritage sites, including several in Greece, and promotes their protection and preservation (Acropolis, Delphi, Olympia)
  • The convention establishes a World Heritage List of sites that are considered to have exceptional significance for humanity, based on criteria such as their historical, artistic, scientific, or natural importance
  • It also provides technical and financial assistance to member states for the conservation and management of their World Heritage sites, and monitors their state of conservation through periodic reporting and reactive monitoring

Greek National Laws

• Greek national laws, such as Law 3028/2002 on the Protection of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in General, establish a comprehensive legal framework for the management, protection, and promotion of archaeological heritage in Greece
  • The law defines the types of cultural property that are protected, including movable and immovable monuments, archaeological sites, and historic places, and sets out the responsibilities and powers of the relevant authorities
  • It also regulates the ownership, possession, and transfer of cultural objects, the conduct of archaeological research and excavations, and the operation of museums and collections
• Despite these conventions and laws, challenges remain in enforcing them effectively, particularly in preventing looting, smuggling, and unauthorized excavations of Greek archaeological sites and artifacts
  • The illicit trade in antiquities is a lucrative and well-organized criminal enterprise that operates across national borders and exploits gaps in the legal and regulatory system
  • The lack of resources, capacity, and political will of some countries to implement and enforce the conventions and laws can also hinder their effectiveness in protecting cultural heritage

Illicit Trade in Antiquities

Impacts of Looting and Smuggling

• The illicit trade in Greek antiquities, fueled by the demand from collectors, museums, and auction houses, contributes to the destruction of archaeological sites, loss of cultural heritage, and corruption of knowledge about the past
  • Looters often use destructive methods, such as bulldozers and dynamite, to extract artifacts quickly and indiscriminately, causing irreversible damage to the archaeological context and the surrounding environment
  • The removal of artifacts from their original context deprives researchers and the public of valuable information about their provenance, function, and significance, and distorts the historical record
• Looting and smuggling of Greek artifacts often involve organized crime networks, violence, and exploitation of local communities, raising serious ethical concerns
  • The illicit trade is often linked to other criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and terrorism, and can fuel corruption and instability in source countries
  • Local communities may be coerced or incentivized to participate in looting, putting them at risk of legal and physical harm, and depriving them of their cultural heritage and potential economic benefits from legal tourism and trade

Challenges in Combating the Illicit Trade

• The lack of provenance and context for illicitly traded artifacts limits their scientific and educational value, as well as their potential for repatriation to Greece
  • Without reliable information about their origin, date, and circumstances of discovery, illicitly traded artifacts cannot be properly studied, interpreted, or displayed in a meaningful way
  • The lack of documentation also makes it difficult to prove the ownership and legal status of the artifacts, and to make a case for their return to their country of origin
• Purchasing and displaying illicitly traded Greek antiquities in museums and private collections can be seen as condoning and perpetuating the illegal market, even if done with good intentions
  • Museums and collectors may argue that they are rescuing the artifacts from destruction or obscurity, or that they are making them accessible to the public for education and enjoyment
  • However, by creating a demand for illicitly traded artifacts, they may be encouraging further looting and smuggling, and undermining the efforts to protect and preserve cultural heritage in situ
• Efforts to combat the illicit trade, such as through increased law enforcement, public awareness campaigns, and due diligence by buyers and sellers, are important but face significant challenges and ethical dilemmas
  • Law enforcement agencies may lack the resources, expertise, and jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute cases of illicit trafficking effectively, especially when they involve multiple countries and complex networks
  • Public awareness campaigns may not reach or persuade the most important stakeholders, such as wealthy collectors and unscrupulous dealers, who have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo
  • Due diligence measures, such as provenance research and contractual clauses, may be difficult to implement and enforce, especially for smaller or less reputable actors in the art market, and may not prevent the circulation of illicitly traded artifacts that have been laundered or falsely documented