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Intro to Native American Studies
Table of Contents
Unit 5 Overview: Native American Resilience
5.1 Early resistance movements and wars
5.2 Adaptation and cultural persistence strategies
5.3 Pan-Indian movements and intertribal alliances
5.4 Contemporary forms of resistance and cultural revitalization

Native American resistance to European colonization began early and persisted for centuries. From King Philip's War in the 1670s to Pontiac's Rebellion in the 1760s, tribes fought to protect their lands and ways of life from encroaching settlers.

The 19th century saw continued struggles, including the Seminole Wars, Tecumseh's Confederacy, and the Indian Wars of the West. These conflicts culminated in events like the Battle of Little Bighorn and the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre, marking the end of armed resistance.

Early Colonial Conflicts

King Philip's War and Pontiac's Rebellion

  • King Philip's War erupted in New England from 1675-1678 led by Metacomet (King Philip) of the Wampanoag tribe
    • Resulted from tensions over land encroachment and cultural differences between Native Americans and English colonists
    • Involved multiple tribes including Wampanoag, Narragansett, and Nipmuck against English colonists and their Native allies
    • Ended with defeat of Native forces, significant population losses, and increased English control over the region
  • Pontiac's Rebellion occurred from 1763-1766 in the Great Lakes region
    • Led by Ottawa leader Pontiac in response to British policies after the French and Indian War
    • Involved coordinated attacks on British forts and settlements (Fort Detroit, Fort Pitt)
    • Resulted in temporary Native success but ultimately ended in negotiated peace and continued British expansion

Tecumseh's Confederacy

  • Tecumseh's Confederacy formed in the early 19th century to resist American expansion into the Northwest Territory
    • Led by Shawnee leader Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa (The Prophet)
    • Aimed to unite diverse Native American tribes into a pan-Indian alliance
    • Promoted traditional Native values and rejection of European-American culture
  • Tecumseh's efforts culminated in the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811
    • American forces led by William Henry Harrison attacked Prophetstown, the confederacy's spiritual center
    • Defeat at Tippecanoe weakened the confederacy but did not end resistance
  • Tecumseh allied with British forces during the War of 1812
    • Continued to fight against American expansion until his death at the Battle of the Thames in 1813
    • Collapse of the confederacy after Tecumseh's death led to increased American control over the Northwest Territory

19th Century Resistance

Seminole Wars and Black Hawk War

  • Seminole Wars consisted of three conflicts in Florida between 1816-1858
    • First Seminole War (1816-1818) resulted from Seminole raids into Georgia and American pursuit of runaway slaves
    • Second Seminole War (1835-1842) was the longest and costliest Indian War in U.S. history
      • Led by Osceola, involved guerrilla tactics and resistance to forced relocation
    • Third Seminole War (1855-1858) ended with most Seminoles removed to Indian Territory, small group remained in Everglades
  • Black Hawk War occurred in 1832 in Illinois and Wisconsin
    • Led by Sauk leader Black Hawk who sought to reclaim tribal lands ceded in disputed treaties
    • Involved Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo tribes against U.S. Army and militia forces
    • Ended with defeat of Native forces at Bad Axe Massacre and capture of Black Hawk

Indian Wars of the West and Battle of Little Bighorn

  • Indian Wars of the West encompassed numerous conflicts between Native tribes and U.S. forces from 1850s-1890s
    • Included wars with Apache, Navajo, Nez Perce, and Sioux tribes
    • Resulted from U.S. westward expansion, broken treaties, and conflicts over land and resources
    • Led to forced relocation of many tribes to reservations and significant cultural disruption
  • Battle of Little Bighorn occurred on June 25-26, 1876 in Montana Territory
    • Part of the Great Sioux War of 1876
    • Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse defeated U.S. 7th Cavalry under George Armstrong Custer
    • Resulted in complete annihilation of Custer and his immediate command
    • Pyrrhic victory for Native Americans as it intensified U.S. efforts to subdue Plains tribes

Late 19th Century Movements

Ghost Dance Movement and Its Impact

  • Ghost Dance movement emerged in 1889 led by Paiute prophet Wovoka
    • Prophesied return of ancestors, restoration of Native lands, and disappearance of white settlers
    • Spread rapidly among Plains tribes, particularly Lakota Sioux
    • Incorporated traditional and Christian elements, including ritual dancing and wearing of "ghost shirts"
  • U.S. government perceived Ghost Dance as a threat and sought to suppress it
    • Banned on many reservations, leading to increased tensions
    • Contributed to events leading up to the Wounded Knee Massacre

Wounded Knee Massacre and Its Aftermath

  • Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on December 29, 1890 on Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota
    • U.S. 7th Cavalry attempted to disarm Lakota Sioux camp led by Chief Big Foot
    • Resulted in deaths of 250-300 Lakota men, women, and children
    • Marked the end of organized Native American resistance on the Plains
  • Aftermath of Wounded Knee had far-reaching consequences
    • Effectively ended the Ghost Dance movement
    • Symbolized the culmination of centuries of conflict between Native Americans and U.S. government
    • Led to increased public awareness and criticism of U.S. Indian policies
    • Continued to influence Native American activism and cultural revitalization efforts in the 20th century

Key Terms to Review (21)

Ghost Dance Movement: The Ghost Dance Movement was a spiritual and political movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, primarily aimed at restoring their lost way of life and bringing about a peaceful coexistence with European settlers. It emerged as a response to the suffering and oppression experienced by Native peoples due to colonization, resulting in a religious revival that emphasized a vision of a future where Native Americans could live in harmony and prosperity. The movement is often connected to cultural exchange and conflict, as it represented a blending of traditional beliefs with new influences while also becoming a catalyst for early resistance movements against oppression.
Pontiac's Rebellion: Pontiac's Rebellion was a conflict that took place in 1763-1766, led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac against British military occupation in the Great Lakes region following the French and Indian War. This uprising emerged from Native American discontent with British policies, land encroachments, and the loss of trade with the French, highlighting significant cultural exchanges and conflicts between Indigenous peoples and European settlers as well as early resistance movements against colonial power.
Cultural Revitalization: Cultural revitalization refers to the process of reawakening, restoring, and maintaining cultural practices, traditions, and languages that may have been diminished or suppressed, especially in the context of colonization and assimilation. This term is important as it emphasizes the active efforts of communities to reclaim and strengthen their cultural identity and heritage in response to historical injustices and ongoing challenges.
Wovoka: Wovoka, also known as Jack Wilson, was a Paiute prophet who played a crucial role in the Ghost Dance movement during the late 19th century. He claimed to have received visions that foretold the resurrection of deceased Native Americans and the restoration of their lands, which connected deeply with communities facing oppression and loss due to U.S. expansion. His teachings inspired many tribes to adopt the Ghost Dance as a form of spiritual resistance and hope for a better future.
Indian Wars of the West: The Indian Wars of the West refers to a series of conflicts that occurred in the western United States from the mid-19th century through the early 20th century, primarily between Native American tribes and American settlers or the U.S. military. These wars were fueled by territorial expansion, broken treaties, and cultural clashes as settlers moved westward in pursuit of land and resources.
Osceola: Osceola was a prominent leader of the Seminole Tribe during the Second Seminole War, which took place in Florida during the 1830s. Known for his fierce resistance against U.S. government policies aimed at the removal of Native Americans from their lands, Osceola became a symbol of Native American resistance and resilience during a time of widespread displacement and conflict.
Bad Axe Massacre: The Bad Axe Massacre refers to a violent confrontation that took place in 1832 near the Bad Axe River in Wisconsin, where U.S. forces killed a large number of Native Americans, primarily from the Sauk and Fox tribes, during the Black Hawk War. This tragic event marks a significant episode in early resistance movements against U.S. expansion and highlights the brutal realities faced by Native Americans in their struggles to defend their lands and sovereignty.
Sitting Bull: Sitting Bull was a prominent Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux leader and chief known for his role in resisting U.S. government policies and military actions against Native American tribes during the late 19th century. He is best remembered for his leadership during the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, where he united various tribes against U.S. forces, symbolizing the fierce resistance of Native Americans to encroachment on their lands and way of life.
Black Hawk War: The Black Hawk War was a brief conflict that took place in 1832 between the United States and Native American tribes led by Chief Black Hawk, primarily involving the Sauk and Fox tribes. The war was a significant event in early resistance movements as it represented the struggle of Native Americans to defend their ancestral lands against encroaching settlers and U.S. government policies aimed at removal.
Crazy Horse: Crazy Horse was a prominent Lakota leader and warrior known for his role in the resistance against U.S. government policies and military incursions into Native American lands during the 19th century. He is best remembered for his leadership in the Battle of Little Bighorn, where he played a crucial part in the defeat of General Custer's forces, symbolizing Indigenous resistance to colonization and the struggle for sovereignty.
War of 1812: The War of 1812 was a military conflict between the United States and Great Britain that lasted from 1812 to 1815. This war emerged from ongoing tensions related to trade restrictions, impressment of American sailors, and British support for Native American resistance against American expansion. The conflict played a significant role in shaping early resistance movements and wars within North America, highlighting the struggles between indigenous peoples and settler colonial powers.
Seminole Wars: The Seminole Wars were a series of conflicts in the 19th century between the United States and the Seminole people of Florida, primarily occurring from 1817 to 1858. These wars were significant as they highlighted the resistance of Native American tribes against U.S. expansion and government policies aimed at removal and land seizure.
Battle of Tippecanoe: The Battle of Tippecanoe was a significant conflict that took place in 1811 between American forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison and Native American warriors associated with Shawnee leader Tecumseh. This battle emerged as a crucial event in the early resistance movements against American expansion, highlighting the growing tensions between settlers and Indigenous peoples in the Midwest.
Pan-indianism: Pan-Indianism is a political and social movement that seeks to unify various Native American tribes and groups, promoting a shared identity and solidarity among Indigenous peoples across different regions and cultures. This movement emerged as a response to colonialism and the struggles faced by Native Americans, emphasizing intertribal alliances and cooperation in order to combat oppression and advocate for rights and recognition.
Tenskwatawa: Tenskwatawa, also known as the Prophet, was a Native American religious leader and brother of Tecumseh who played a significant role in the early resistance movements against European-American expansion in the early 19th century. He promoted a spiritual revival among Indigenous peoples, urging them to reject European influences and return to traditional ways of life, which became a unifying force for various tribes in their resistance efforts.
King Philip's War: King Philip's War was a violent conflict that took place from 1675 to 1676 between Native American tribes in New England and English settlers. The war was named after Metacom, the leader of the Wampanoag tribe, who was called King Philip by the English. This conflict is often viewed as one of the earliest and most significant resistance movements by Native Americans against colonial encroachment, showcasing the struggle for land and sovereignty.
Tecumseh's Confederacy: Tecumseh's Confederacy was a coalition of various Native American tribes formed in the early 19th century under the leadership of Shawnee chief Tecumseh. This alliance aimed to resist the encroachment of European-American settlers into Native lands and preserve indigenous sovereignty through united action and military resistance.
Battle of Little Bighorn: The Battle of Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant conflict between the United States Army and Native American tribes, primarily the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. This battle is often viewed as a major resistance movement against U.S. government policies and military actions that aimed to confine Native Americans to reservations and limit their way of life.
Pontiac: Pontiac was an Ottawa chief who played a pivotal role in the early resistance movements against British colonial expansion in North America during the 18th century. He is best known for leading a coalition of various tribes in what became known as Pontiac's War, which aimed to reclaim Native American lands from British settlers and assert indigenous sovereignty after the French and Indian War.
Metacomet: Metacomet, also known as King Philip, was a Wampanoag leader who played a significant role in the resistance against English colonization in New England during the late 17th century. He led a coalition of various Native American tribes in a series of conflicts known as King Philip's War, which was one of the earliest and bloodiest conflicts between Native Americans and European settlers in North America.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army troops killed around 300 Lakota Sioux, including women and children, during a confrontation at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies aimed at subduing Native American resistance and represents the devastating effects of colonial policies on Indigenous societies.