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Intro to Native American Studies
Table of Contents
Unit 10 Overview: Native American Education & Language Revival
10.1 History of Native American education policies
10.2 Contemporary Native American education systems
10.3 Language loss and revitalization efforts
10.4 Cultural preservation through education

Native American education policies have a complex history rooted in assimilation and cultural suppression. From the Indian Civilization Act of 1819 to the harsh boarding school era, these policies aimed to eradicate Native cultures and replace them with Euro-American values.

The 20th century brought reforms and shifts towards self-determination. Key developments like the Meriam Report and the Indian Self-Determination Act empowered tribes to manage their own education programs, promoting cultural preservation and Native involvement in educational decision-making.

Early Assimilation Efforts

Federal Legislation and Boarding Schools

  • Indian Civilization Act of 1819 authorized federal funding for missionary schools to educate Native American children
    • Aimed to "civilize" Native Americans through Western education and Christianity
    • Provided annual fund of $10,000 to religious groups and individuals for establishing schools in Native territories
  • Boarding schools emerged as primary tool for assimilating Native American youth
    • First off-reservation boarding school, Carlisle Indian Industrial School, founded in 1879 by Richard Henry Pratt
    • Motto "Kill the Indian, Save the Man" encapsulated harsh assimilation philosophy
    • Students forcibly removed from families and communities, often for years at a time
    • Prohibited from speaking Native languages or practicing cultural traditions

Assimilation Policies and Cultural Impacts

  • Assimilation policies sought to eradicate Native American cultures and identities
    • Focused on replacing traditional knowledge, customs, and beliefs with Euro-American values
    • Emphasized English language acquisition, Christianity, and Western-style education
    • Taught vocational skills aligned with Euro-American economy (farming, domestic work)
  • Cultural genocide resulted from systematic efforts to destroy Native American ways of life
    • Separation of children from families disrupted intergenerational knowledge transfer
    • Loss of language fluency among younger generations
    • Erosion of traditional spiritual practices and ceremonies
    • Psychological trauma and cultural alienation experienced by many boarding school survivors

20th Century Reforms

Critical Reports and Policy Shifts

  • Meriam Report of 1928 exposed failures and abuses within Indian boarding school system
    • Conducted by Lewis Meriam and team of researchers from Brookings Institution
    • Documented poor living conditions, inadequate education, and health issues in schools
    • Recommended reforms including improved facilities, culturally relevant curriculum, and increased tribal involvement
  • Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 marked shift away from assimilation policies
    • Encouraged tribal self-governance and cultural preservation
    • Ended allotment policy and restored some lands to tribal control
    • Provided funds for Native Americans to attend college and vocational schools

Self-Determination and Termination Era

  • Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 empowered tribes to manage their own education programs
    • Allowed tribes to contract with federal government to operate schools and educational services
    • Promoted incorporation of Native languages and cultures into curriculum
    • Increased Native American involvement in educational decision-making and administration
  • Termination era (1940s-1960s) threatened progress in Native American education
    • Federal policy aimed to end government's trust relationship with tribes
    • Resulted in loss of federal services, including education support, for many tribes
    • House Concurrent Resolution 108 (1953) called for termination of federal supervision over tribes
    • Menominee Termination Act (1954) serves as example of devastating effects on tribal education systems

Key Terms to Review (12)

Self-determination: Self-determination is the right of individuals and groups to make choices about their own lives and governance without external influence. This principle is crucial in the context of indigenous communities, as it empowers them to reclaim autonomy, maintain cultural integrity, and engage in decision-making that directly affects their affairs.
Carlisle Indian Industrial School: The Carlisle Indian Industrial School was the first federally funded off-reservation boarding school for Native American students, established in 1879 in Pennsylvania. Its primary aim was to assimilate Native American children into Euro-American culture by providing education and vocational training, while eradicating their indigenous identities and languages. The school became a model for similar institutions across the United States, representing a significant part of the broader effort to enforce cultural assimilation and control over Native American populations.
House Concurrent Resolution 108: House Concurrent Resolution 108 is a legislative measure passed by the U.S. Congress in 1953, which aimed to terminate the federal government's recognition of tribal sovereignty for Native American tribes and assimilate them into mainstream American society. This resolution marked a significant shift in U.S. policy towards Native Americans, moving away from previous commitments to uphold their distinct rights and identities.
Menominee Termination Act: The Menominee Termination Act was a law passed in 1954 that aimed to terminate the federal recognition of the Menominee Tribe of Wisconsin, leading to the loss of their reservation status and tribal sovereignty. This act was part of a broader policy during the mid-20th century aimed at assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society, often resulting in detrimental effects on tribal communities.
Termination era: The termination era refers to a period in U.S. history during the 1950s and 1960s when the federal government sought to end its recognition of tribal sovereignty and assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society. This policy aimed to dismantle the reservation system and promote individual land ownership among Native Americans, leading to significant cultural, social, and economic upheaval within Indigenous communities.
Meriam Report: The Meriam Report, officially titled 'The Problem of Indian Administration', is a comprehensive study published in 1928 that critically examined the U.S. government's policies and practices regarding Native American education and welfare. It highlighted the failures of existing Indian policies, particularly those related to education, and called for significant reforms to improve the living conditions and educational opportunities for Native Americans.
Indian Civilization Act: The Indian Civilization Act was a legislative measure enacted in the 1880s aimed at promoting the assimilation of Native Americans into Euro-American society. This act was part of a broader policy that sought to 'civilize' Indigenous peoples by imposing Western education, culture, and agricultural practices, thereby undermining traditional ways of life.
Indian Self-Determination Act: The Indian Self-Determination Act, passed in 1975, empowers Native American tribes to take control of their own governance and programs, allowing them to make decisions about their community's future without federal interference. This act was a significant shift from previous policies that often undermined tribal sovereignty, marking an important milestone in the fight for Native American rights and self-governance.
Cultural genocide: Cultural genocide refers to the systematic destruction of a group's cultural heritage and identity, often carried out through policies and actions that aim to erase the cultural practices, languages, and beliefs of a targeted community. This term highlights the ways in which dominant societies seek to eliminate the cultural expressions of marginalized groups, leading to profound and lasting impacts on those communities.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act, passed in 1934, aimed to reverse the assimilation policies of the Dawes Act and promote self-governance among Native American tribes. This act allowed tribes to establish their own governments and provided federal funds for economic development, ultimately marking a shift from a policy of removal and assimilation to one of self-determination.
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, enacted in 1975, was a landmark legislation aimed at promoting self-governance among Native American tribes and increasing their control over federal education funds. This act allowed tribes to administer their own education programs, reflecting a shift towards respecting tribal sovereignty and enhancing nation-to-nation relationships with the federal government. It plays a crucial role in the broader context of federal Indian policies that moved from removal and assimilation towards self-determination, addressing contemporary issues in tribal governance and long-term impacts on Native communities.
Boarding schools: Boarding schools were institutions designed to educate Native American children while attempting to erase their cultural identities and assimilate them into Euro-American society. These schools, often run by the federal government or religious organizations, aimed to 'civilize' Native youth by enforcing English language use and Christian values, significantly impacting their families and communities.